Biosolids Treatment Processes

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Bewehren nach DIN EN 1992-1-1 (EC2)

Biosolids Treatment Processes
Volume 6

Verlag:
Humana Press Weitere Titel dieses Verlages anzeigen

Auflage: 2007
Erschienen: Oktober 2007
Seiten: 848
Sprache: Englisch

Maße: 254x178x50
Einband: Leinen (Buchleinen)
Zum Buch: HC runder Rücken kaschiert
ISBN: 1588293963
EAN: 9781588293961

Inhaltsverzeichnis


Contents

Preface				v
Contributors				xxiii

1	Characteristics and Quantity of Biosolids
	Nazih K. Shammas and Lawrence K. Wang			1
	1.	Introduction		1
	2.	Primary Biosolids		3
		2.1	Estimation of Primary Biosolids Production	3
		2.2	Factors Affecting Solids Removal	7
		2.3	Composition and Characteristics of Primary Biosolids	9
	3.	Biological Biosolids		10
		3.1	General Characteristics	10
		3.2	Activated Sludge	10
		3.3	Trickling Filter Biosolids	22
		3.4	Biosolids from Rotating Biological Contactors	26
		3.5	Coupled Attached-Suspended Growth Biosolids	26
		3.6	Denitrification Biosolids	27
	4.	Chemical Biosolids		27
	5.	Characteristics of Biosolids		28
		5.1	Specific Gravity and Volatility	28
		5.2	Preconcentration or Dewatering of Biosolids	29
		5.3	Particle Surface Charge and Hydration	31
		5.4	Particle Size	32
		5.5	Compressibility	33
		5.6	Biosolids Temperature	34
		5.7	Ratio of Volatile Solids to Fixed Solids	34
		5.8	Biosolids pH	34
		5.9	Septicity	34
		5.10	Trace Elements and Heavy Metals	34
	6.	Examples		35
		6.1	Example 1: Determination of Biosolids Volume	35
		6.2	Example 2: Determination of Solids Content After Digestion	36
		6.3	Example 3: Determination of Biosolids Production	36
		6.4	Example 4: Interaction of Yield Calculations and the Quantitative Flow Diagram	40
	Nomenclature			40
	References			41

2	Gravity Thickening
	Nazih K. Shammas and Lawrence K. Wang			45
	1.	Introduction		45
		1.1	General	45
		1.2	Gravity-Thickening	46
		1.3	Process Evaluation	46
		1.4	Types and Occurrence of Thickening Processes	47
	2.	Sedimentation Basins		47
		2.1	Primary Sedimentation	47
		2.2	Secondary Sedimentation	47
	3.	Gravity Thickeners		47
		3.1	Introduction	47
		3.2	Theory	48
		3.3	System Design Considerations	49
	4.	Cost		55
		4.1	Capital Cost	55
		4.2	Operating and Maintenance Cost	55
	5.	Design of Thickeners		56
		5.1	Input Data	57
		5.2	Design Parameters	58
		5.3	Design Procedure	59
		5.4	Output Data	61
	6.	Design Example 1		61
		6.1	Thickener Surface Area	61
		6.2	Hydraulic Loading	62
		6.3	Torque Requirements	62
		6.4	Tank Depth	62
	7.	Design Example 2		63
		7.1	Quantity of Sludge and Solids	63
		7.2	Surface Area of Thickeners	63
		7.3	Diameter of Thickeners	64
	8.	Design Example 3		64
		8.1	Height of Sludge at the Required Solids Concentration (C")	64
		8.2	Surface Area of Thickener	64
		8.3	Solid Loading	65
	Nomenclature			66
	References			66
	Appendix			69

3	Flotation Thickening
	Lawrence K. Wang, Nazih K. Shammas, William A. Selke, and Donald B. Aulenbach			71
	1.	Introduction		71
		1.1	Flotation Processes	71
		1.2	DAF Thickener Components	72
		1.3	DAF Thickener Advantages and Disadvantages	72
	2.	DAF Thickener Process Description		73
		2.1	Full presentation DAF-Thickening System	74
		2.2	Partial Pressurization DAF-Thickening System	74
		2.3	Recycle Pressurization DAF-Thickening System	74
	3.	Process Applications and Limitations		75
		3.1	Sludge Thickening Applications	76
		3.2	DAF Thickening Process Limitations	76
	4.	Process Design Considerations		76
		4.1	Rectangular or Circular Shape	76
		4.2	Concrete or Steel Construction	76
		4.3	Pilot-Scale or Bench-Scale Experiments	78
		4.4	Influent Feed Characteristics	78
		4.5	Thickener Surface Area	79
		4.6	Air-to-Solids Ratio	81
		4.7	Polymer Usage	83
		4.8	Pressurization System	83
		4.9	Operating Pressure	83
		4.10	Quantity of Pressurized Flow	84
		4.11	Number of Units	84
		4.12	Feed Sludge Line	84
		4.13	Thickened Sludge Removal	84
		4.14	Bottom Sludge Draw Off, Subnatant Line, Pressurized Flow Piping, and Controls	84
	5.	Process Performance		85
		5.1	Performance Data	85
		5.2	Factors Affecting Performance	85
	6.	Process Cost and Operation Considerations		86
		6.1	Capital Cost	86
		6.2	Operating and Maintenance Costs	87
	7.	Process Reliability and Environmental Impact		87
		7.1	Reliability	87
		7.2	Environmental Impact	87
	8.	Process Design Criteria and Procedures		88
		8.1	Design Criteria	88
		8.2	Input Data of DAF Thickener Design	88
		8.3	Design Parameters	89
		8.4	Design Procedure for DAF Thickener With No Recycle (Direct Pressurization)	89
		8.5	Design Procedures for DAF Thickener With Recycle	90
		8.6	Output Data of DAF Thickener Design	91
	9.	Design and Application Examples		91
		9.1	Example 1. Design of a DAF Thickener With No Recycle	91
		9.2	Example 2. Design of a DAF Thickener With Recycle	93
		9.3	Example 3. Complete DAF Thickening System Design	95
	Nomenclature			97
	References			97
	Appendix			100

4	Centrifugation Clarification and Thickening
	Lawrence K. Wang, Shoou-Yuh Chang, Yung-Tse Hung, H. S. Muralidhara, and Satya P. Chauhan			101
	1.	Introduction		101
	2.	Principles		102
	3.	Types of Water Associated with Solid Particles		102
	4.	Types of Centrifuges		103
		4.1	Basket Centrifuge	103
		4.2	Solid-Bowl Centrifuge	104
		4.3	Disc Centrifuge	107
	5.	Performance of Centrifuges in Sludge Dewatering		109
		5.1	Separation of Municipal Wastewater Treatment Plant Sludges by Centrifugation	109
		5.2	Separation of Pulp and Paper Sludges by Centrifugation	110
		5.3	Separation of Electroplating by Centrifugation	112
		5.4	Separation of Coals and Refuse by Centrifugation	114
		5.5	Separation of Metallurgical Refinery Sludge by Centrifugation	121
		5.6	Separation of Cannery Waste Biological Sludge by Centrifugation	122
		5.7	Separation of Potato Wastes by Centrifugation	122
	6.	Centrifugation Design Considerations		122
		6.1	General Guidelines for Selecting a Centrifuge for Sludge Dewatering	122
		6.2	Centrifuge Manufacturers	123
		6.3	Materials for Centrifuge Construction	124
		6.4	Advantages and Disadvantages of Centrifugation in Various Applications	124
		6.5	Design Criteria, Input Data, and Design Parameters	125
		6.6	Design Procedure	125
	7.	Operation and Maintenance		126
		7.1	Troubleshooting	126
		7.2	Preventive Maintenance	126
		7.3	Noise and Odor Control	128
	8.	Design and Practical Application Examples		128
		8.1	Example 1: Centrifugation System Design	128
		8.2	Example 2: Centrifugation System Chemical Requirements	129
		8.3	Example 3: Centrifugation System Cost Estimation	129
		8.4	Example 4: Centrifugation Case Study	129
	Nomenclature			131
	References			132

5	Anaerobic Digestion
	Jerry R. Taricska, David A. Long, J. Paul Chen, Yung-Tse Hung, and Shuai-Wen Zou			135
	1.	Introduction		135
	2.	Theory		136
		2.1	Nature of organic Wastes	136
		2.2	Biochemistry and Microbiology of the Anaerobic Process	137
		2.3	Reactor Configurations	138
		2.4	Organic Loading Parameters	140
		2.5	Time and Temperature Relationships	141
		2.6	Nutrient Requirements	142
		2.7	Gas Production and Utilization	142
	3.	Design Practice		144
		3.1	Anaerobic Treatability Studies	144
		3.2	Anaerobic Reactor Design and Sizing	146
		3.3	Tank Construction and System Components	149
		3.4	System Equipment and Appurtenances	150
		3.5	Gas Utilization	159
		3.6	Sludge Pumping and Piping Considerations	160
	4.	Management of Digestion		160
		4.1	Control of Sludge Feed	160
		4.2	Withdrawal of Sludge and Supernatant	161
		4.3	Maintenance of Reactor Stability	161
		4.4	Digester Performance Criteria	162
	5.	Capital and Operating Costs		162
		5.1	Generals	162
		5.2	Items Included in Cost Estimates	162
	6.	Design Examples		163
		6.1	Example Using Standards Design	163
		6.2	Example Using Solids Loading Factor	165
		6.3	Example Using Modified Anaerobic Contact Process	167
	7.	Recent Development in Anaerobic Process		168
	Nomenclature			173
	References			173

6	Aerobic Digestion
	Nazih K. Shammas and Lawrence K. Wang			177
	1.	Introduction		177
	2.	Process Description		178
		2.1	Microbiology	178
		2.2	Advantages	178
		2.3	Disadvantages	178
	3.	Process Variations		179
		3.1	Conventional Semibatch Operation	179
		3.2	Conventional Continuous Operation	179
		3.3	Autothermal Thermophilic Aerobic Digestion (Using Air)	179
		3.4	Autothermal Thermophilic Aerobic Digestion (Using Oxygen)	181
	4.	Design Considerations		181
		4.1	Temperature	181
		4.2	Solids Reduction	182
		4.3	Oxygen Requirements	183
		4.4	Mixing	184
		4.5	pH Reduction	184
		4.6	Dewatering	184
	5.	Process Performance		185
		5.1	Total Volatile Solids Reduction	185
		5.2	Supernatant Quality	185
	6.	Process Design		186
		6.1	Input Data	186
		6.2	Design Parameters	186
		6.3	Design Procedure	186
		6.4	Output Data	189
	7.	Cost		189
		7.1	Capital Cost	189
		7.2	Operation and Maintenance Cost	190
	8.	Recent Developments and Summary		191
		8.1	Recent Developments	191
		8.2	Summary	192
	9.	Design Examples		193
		9.1	Example 1	193
		9.2	Example 2	195
	Nomenclature			199
	References			199
	Appendix			205

7	Lime Stabilization
	Clint Williford, Wei-Yin Chen, Nazih K. Shammas, and Lawrence K. Wang			207
	1.	Introduction		207
	2.	Process Description		208
		2.1	History	208
		2.2	Current Status and Regulations	208
		2.3	Applicability	211
		2.4	Theory of the Process	212
		2.5	Advantages and Disadvantages	212
		2.6	Environmental Impacts	213
	3.	Design Criteria		213
	4.	Process Performance		217
		4.1	Deodorization	217
		4.2	Pathogen Reduction	218
		4.3	Dewatering and Settling Characteristics	219
		4.4	Chemical Characteristics	220
	5.	Process Design		223
		5.1	Design of Lime Handling Facilities	223
		5.2	Biosolids-Lime Mixing Tank Design	228
		5.3	PSRP Treatment to Meet Class B Requirements	230
		5.4	PFRP Treatment to Meet Class A Requirements	231
	6.	Cost and Energy Usage		232
		6.1	Capital and Operating Costs	232
		6.2	Energy Usage	234
		6.3	Design Comparison for Lime-Only and Supplemental Heating Pasteurization	234
	7.	Design Example		235
		7.1	Design Loading	235
		7.2	System Description	236
		7.3	Component Sizing	237
	Nomenclature			238
	References			238
	Appendix			241

8	Pressurized Ozonation
	Lawrence K. Wang and Nazih K. Shammas			243
	1.	Introduction		243
		1.1	Oxyozosynthesis Sludge Management System	244
		1.2	Oxyozosynthesis Wastewater Reclamation System	247
	2.	Description of Processes		249
		2.1	Ozonation and Oxygenation Process	249
		2.2	Flotation Process	251
		2.3	Filter Belt Press	255
		2.4	Performance of Oxyozosynthesis Sludge Management System	257
		2.5	Performance of Oxyozosynthesis Wastewater Reclamation System	259
	3.	Formation and Generation of Ozone		260
		3.1	Formation of Ozone	260
		3.2	Generation of Ozone	261
	4.	Requirements for Ozonation Equipment		264
		4.1	Feed Gas Equipment	264
		4.2	Ozone Generators	266
		4.3	Ozone Contactors	266
	5.	Properties of Ozone		269
	6.	Disinfection by Ozone		274
	7.	Oxidation by Ozone		277
		7.1	Ozone Reaction with Inorganics	277
		7.2	Ozone Reaction with Organic Material	280
	8.	Oxygenation and Ozonation Systems		285
		8.1	Oxygenation Systems	285
		8.2	Ozonation Systems	289
		8.3	Removal of Pollutants from Waste by Ozonation	291
	Nomenclature			291
	Acknowledgments			292
	References			292

9	Low-Temperature Thermal Treatment Processes
	Lawrence K. Wang, Clint Williford, Wei-Yin Chen, and Nazih K. Shammas			299
	1.	Introduction		299
	2.	Heat Conditioning Process		299
		2.1	Process Description	299
		2.2	Process Applications and Limitations	300
		2.3	Design Considerations	301
	3.	Heat Drying Process		304
		3.1	Process Description	304
		3.2	Design Considerations	305
	4.	Design and Application Examples		309
		4.1	Example 1	309
		4.2	Example 2	314
		4.3	Example 3	317
		4.4	Example 4	320
		4.5	Example 5	322
		4.6	Example 6	324
		4.7	Example 7	326
		4.8	Example 8	326
		4.9	Example 9	327
	Nomenclature			327
	References			328

10	Irradiation and Solid Substances Disinfection
	Lawrence K. Wang, J. Paul Chen, and Robert Ziegler			331
	1.	Introduction		331
		1.1	Disinfection and Irradiation	331
		1.2	Pathogenic Organisms	332
		1.3	Pathogen Occurrence in the United States	332
		1.4	Potential Human Exposure to Pathogens	332
	2.	Pathogens and Their Characteristics		333
		2.1	Viruses	333
		2.2	Bacteria	334
		2.3	Parasites	334
		2.4	Fungi	336
	3.	Solid Substances Disinfection		336
		3.1	Long-Term Storage	336
		3.2	Chemical Disinfection	336
		3.3	Low Temperature Thermal Processes for Disinfection	337
		3.4	High Temperature Thermal Processes for Disinfection	338
		3.5	Composting	338
		3.6	High Energy Radiation	339
	4.	Disinfection with Electron Irradiation		339
		4.1	Electron Irradiation Process Description	340
		4.2	Electron Irradiation Design Considerations	341
		4.3	Electron Irradiation Operational Considerations	342
		4.4	Electron Irradiation performance	342
	5.	Disinfection with γ -Irradiation		343
		5.1	γ -Irradiation Systems	343
		5.2	γ -Irradiation Design Considerations	346
		5.3	γ -Irradiation Operational Considerations	348
	References			349

11	Inorganic Chemical Conditioning and Stabilization
	Nazih K. Shammas and Lawrence K. Wang			353
	1.	Introduction		353
	2.	Factors Affecting Biosolids Conditioning		354
	3.	Inorganic Chemical Conditioning		356
		3.1	Ferric Chloride	356
		3.2	Lime	357
		3.3	Dosage Requirements	357
		3.4	Other Types of Inorganic Conditioners	357
	4.	Organic Polymers		359
	5.	Selection of a Conditioning Chemical		359
		5.1	Jar Test	359
		5.2	Filter Leaf Testing	360
		5.3	Buchner Funnel Test for Determination of Specific Resistances	362
		5.4	Capillary Suction Time	364
	6.	Cost		364
		6.1	Capital Cost	364
		6.2	Operation and Maintenance Cost	365
	7.	Thermal Conditioning		368
		7.1	HT Process	369
		7.2	LPO Process	370
		7.3	Economic Considerations	372
		7.4	Advantages and Disadvantages of HT/LPO Conditioning	372
	8.	Miscellaneous Conditioning Processes		373
		8.1	Elutriation	373
		8.2	Freeze-Thaw	373
		8.3	Mechanical Screening and Grinding	374
		8.4	Bacteria	374
		8.5	Electricity	375
		8.6	Solvent Extraction	375
		8.7	Ultrasonic	375
	9.	Biosolids Stabilization		375
	10.	Chlorine Stabilization		376
		10.1	Process Description	376
		10.2	Advantages and Disadvantages	378
		10.3	Chlorine Requirements	379
		10.4	Characteristics of Chlorine-Stabilized Materials	380
		10.5	Costs	381
	11.	Design Example		383
	Nomenclature			384
	References			384
	Appendix			388

12	Elutriation and Polymer Conditioning
	Lawrence K. Wang, Shoou-Yuh Chang, Yung-Tse Hung, and J. Paul Chen			389
	1.	Elutriation Process Description		389
	2.	Elutriation Process Design Considerations		390
		2.1	Reactor Design Considerations	390
		2.2	Elutriate Disposal Considerations	391
		2.3	New Technology Considerations	391
		2.4	Benefit	392
	3.	Elutriation Process Design Procedures		392
		3.1	Multiple Elutriation in a Single Tank	392
		3.2	Countercurrent Elutriation in Multiple Tanks	393
	4.	Chemical Conditioning with Soluble Organic and Inorganic Polymers		394
		4.1	Soluble Nonionic Organic Polymers	394
		4.2	Soluble Ionic Organic Polymers (Polyelectrolytes)	394
		4.3	Polyelectrolyte Conditioning Process for Sludge Thickening	396
		4.4	Polyelectrolyte Conditioning Process for Dewatering	398
		4.5	Inorganic Polymer Conditioning Process for Thickening and Dewatering	399
		4.6	Polyelectrolytes Determination and Process Control	399
	5.	Design Examples		399
		5.1	Example 1	399
		5.2	Example 2	400
		5.3	Example 3	400
		5.4	Example 4	400
	Nomenclature			401
	Acknowledgments			401
	References			401

13	Drying Beds
	Lawrence K. Wang, Y an Li, Nazih K. Shammas, and George P. Sakellaropoulos			403
	1.	Introduction		403
	2.	Sludge Drying Beds Process Description		404
		2.1	General Process Description	404
		2.2	Operation and Operating Variables	406
		2.3	Advantages and Disadvantages	406
	3.	Types of Sludge Drying Beds		407
		3.1	Conventional Sand Drying Beds	407
		3.2	Paved Dying Beds	408
		3.3	Wedge-Wire Drying Beds	408
		3.4	Vacuum-Assisted Drying Beds	409
	4.	Process Applications and Limitations		410
	5.	Process Performance, Theory, and Principles		410
	6.	Design Criteria, Requirements, and Other Considerations		415
		6.1	Land Requirements	415
		6.2	Covered Beds	416
		6.3	Sludge Conditioning	416
		6.4	Sludge Removal	416
		6.5	Sidestreams	417
		6.6	Bed Sizing Criteria	417
	7.	Environmental Impact and Energy Consumption		417
	8.	Cost		420
		8.1	Capital Costs	420
		8.2	Operating and Maintenance Cost	420
	9.	Process Monitoring		421
	10.	Design and Application Examples		422
		10.1	Example 1	422
		10.2	Example 2	423
		10.3	Example 3	427
		10.4	Example 4	427
		10.5	Example 5	427
	Nomenclature			428
	References			428

14	Animal Wastes Treatment Using Anaerobic Lagoons
	Lawrence K. Wang, Yung-Tse Hung, and J. Paul Chen			431
	1.	Introduction		431
	2.	Process Description		432
	3.	Applications and Limitations		432
	4.	Expected Process Performance and Reliability		432
	5.	Process Design		433
		5.1	Minimum Treatment Volume	433
		5.2	Waste Volume for Treatment Period	434
		5.3	Sludge Volume	436
		5.4	Lagoon Volume Requirement	436
		5.5	Anaerobic Lagoons	437
		5.6	Data Gathering and Compilation for Design	437
	6.	Energy Consumption and Costs of Anaerobic Lagoons		440
	7.	Waste Storage Ponds		441
		7.1	Process Description	441
		7.2	Process Design	441
	8.	Design and Application Examples		443
		8.1	Example 1	443
		8.2	Example 2	443
		8.3	Example 3	443
		8.4	Example 4	445
		8.5	Example 5	447
		8.6	Example 6	448
		8.7	Example 7	448
	Nomenclature			449
	References			449

15	Vertical Shaft Digestion, Flotation, and Biofiltration
	Lawrence K. Wang, Nazih K. Shammas, Jeffrey Guild, and David Pollock			451
	1.	Introduction		451
		1.1	Biosolids Treatment	451
		1.2	VSB and VSD	451
		1.3	Vertical Shaft Flotation (VSF) Thickening Process	453
		1.4	Gas-Phase Biofiltration	454
		1.5	Biosolids Digestion and Stabilization	454
	2.	Principles of Vertical Shaft Digestion (VSD) and Optional Anaerobic Digestion		456
		2.1	Theory and Principles of Aerobic Digestion	456
		2.2	Theory and Principles of Optional Anaerobic Digestion	457
		2.3	Combined VSD and Anaerobic Digestion	458
	3.	Description, Operation, and Applications of VSD System		458
		3.1	Process Description	458
		3.2	Process Operation	458
		3.3	Process Applications	459
	4.	Design Considerations of a Complete VSD System		460
		4.1	ATAD-Air	460
		4.2	ATAD-Oxygen	461
		4.3	Flotation Thickening After VSD	462
		4.4	Optional Dual Digestion System	464
		4.5	Biosolids Dewatering Processes	465
		4.6	Gas-Phase Biofiltration for Air Emission Control	466
		4.7	Operational Controls of Biofiltration	469
	5.	Case Study		470
		5.1	Facility Design and Construction	471
		5.2	VSD Demonstration Plan	473
		5.3	Design Criteria Development for VSD	475
	6.	Conclusions		489
	References			489
	Appendices			493

16	Vacuum Filtration
	Nazih K. Shammas and Lawrence K. Wang			495
	1.	Filtration Dewatering Systems		495
		1.1	Basic Theory	496
		1.2	Filter Aids	496
	2.	Principles of Vacuum Filtration		497
	3.	Application and Performance		501
	4.	Auxiliary Equipment		504
	5.	Operating Factors		505
		5.1	Machine Variables	505
		5.2	Filter Media	505
		5.3	Solids Feed Content	506
	6.	Physical and Process Control		507
		6.1	Physical Control	507
		6.2	Process Control	507
	7.	Upgrading Existing Units		509
	8.	Case History		510
	9.	Costs		510
	10.	Example		513
	Nomenclature			515
	References			515
	Appendix			518

17	Belt Filter Presses
	Nazih K. Shammas and Lawrence K. Wang			519
	1.	Introduction		519
	2.	Principles of Belt Filters		520
	3.	Advantages and Disadvantages		521
	4.	Application and Performance		522
	5.	Design Criteria		523
	6.	Design of High Pressure Zone		525
	7.	Odor Control		527
	8.	Operation and Maintenance		528
	9.	Costs		530
	10.	Design Examples		532
		10.1	Design Example 1	532
		10.2	Design Example 2	533
		10.3	Design Example 3	534
		10.4	Design Example 4	535
	Nomenclature			536
	References			537
	Appendix			539

18	Pressure Filtration
	Nazih K. Shammas and Lawrence K. Wang			541
	1.	Introduction		541
	2.	Process Description		543
	3.	Applicability		546
	4.	Advances and Disadvantages		546
	5.	Basis for System Design		547
	6.	Evaluation of Design Parameters		549
		6.1	Types of Tests	549
		6.2	Test Procedures	549
	7.	Design Procedures		550
	8.	Support Equipment and Processes		555
		8.1	Biosolids Conditioning Process	555
		8.2	Feed Pump System	557
		8.3	Cloth Washing and Cleaning	558
		8.4	Dewatered Cake Breakers	559
	9.	Operation, Maintenance, and Performance Characteristics		559
		9.1	Control of Machine Variables	560
		9.2	Control of Process Variables	561
		9.3	Control Considerations	561
	10.	Survey of Filter Presses		562
	11.	General Equipment Selection Criteria		567
	12.	Costs		567
	13.	Design Examples		569
		13.1	Design Example 1	569
		13.2	Design Example 2	574
	Nomenclature			577
	References			578
	Appendix			581

19	Evaporation Processes
	Lawrence K. Wang, Nazih K. Shammas, Clint Williford, Wei-Yin Chen, and George P. Sakellaropoulos			583
	1.	Introduction		583
		1.1	Drying and Evaporation Processes	583
		1.2	Natural Sludge Evaporation Lagoons and Evaporation Process Reactor	584
	2.	Sludge Evaporation Lagoons (Sludge Drying Lagoons)		585
		2.1	Process Description	585
		2.2	Process Applications and Limitations	586
		2.3	Design Considerations	587
		2.4	Cost	589
	3.	Evaporators		590
		3.1	Process Description	590
		3.2	Process Applications and Limitations	593
		3.3	Design Considerations	593
	4.	Design Examples		597
		4.1	Example 1	597
		4.2	Example 2	598
		4.3	Example 3	599
		4.4	Example 4	600
		4.5	Example 5	601
		4.6	Example 6	601
		4.7	Example 7	601
		4.8	Example 8	603
		4.9	Example 9	604
		4.10	Example 10	605
	Nomenclature			609
	References			610
	Appendix			612

20	High Temperature Thermal Processes
	Clint Williford, Wei-Yin Chen, Lawrence K. Wang, and Nazih K. Shammas			613
	1.	Introduction		613
	2.	Principles of High Temperature Operations - Combustion Factors		614
		2.1	Sludge Fuel Values	614
		2.2	Oxygen Requirements for Complete Combustion	617
		2.3	Factors Affecting the Heat Balance	617
		2.4	Example	619
	3.	Technology Review		620
		3.1	Incineration of Sludge FBF	620
		3.2	Incineration of Sludge MHF	624
		3.3	Codisposal by Combustion	627
		3.4	SAC of Sludge	629
	4.	Incineration Design Example		632
		4.1	Problem Statement	632
		4.2	Approximate Calculation Method	633
		4.3	Theoretical Calculation method	638
		4.4	Comparison of Approximate and Theoretical Calculation Methods	641
	5.	Regulatory Matters		642
	Nomenclature			642
	References			642

21	Biosolids Composting
	Nazih K. Shammas and Lawrence K. Wang			645
	1.	Introduction		645
	2.	Applicability and Environmental Impact		647
	3.	Compost Quality		649
	4.	Process Description		651
		4.1	Moisture	651
		4.2	Temperature	653
		4.3	pH	653
		4.4	Nutrient Concentration	653
		4.5	Oxygen Supply	653
	5.	Design Criteria and Procedures		654
		5.1	Compost Processes With No External Bulking Agent	656
		5.2	Compost Processes Using External Bulking Agent	658
	6.	Windrow Process		659
		6.1	Methodology and Design	659
		6.2	Energy Requirements	662
		6.3	Public Health and Environmental Impacts	662
	7.	Aerated Static Pile Process		664
		7.1	Process Description	664
		7.2	Individual Aerated Piles	665
		7.3	Extended Aerated Piles	666
		7.4	Oxygen Supply	666
		7.5	Bulking Agents	667
		7.6	Energy Requirements	667
		7.7	Public Health and Environmental Impacts	668
	8.	In-Vessel Composting System		669
		8.1	Process Description	669
		8.2	Advantages and Disadvantages	673
		8.3	Applicability	673
	9.	Costs		674
	10.	Design Examples		675
		10.1	Design Example 1 - Windrow Process	675
		10.2	Design Example 2 - Extended Aerated Pile System	678
	Nomenclature			682
	References			683
	Appendix			687

22	Vermicomposting Process
	Lawrence K. Wang, Yung-Tse Hung, and Kathleen Hung Li			689
	1.	Introduction		689
		1.1	Summary	689
		1.2	Process Description	690
	2.	Technology Development		690
	3.	Problems and Technology Breakthrough		694
		3.1	Introduction	694
		3.2	Problems	694
		3.3	Progress in Vermicomposting Outside the United States	696
	4.	Pioneers, Current Status, and Resources		697
		4.1	Pioneers and Current Status	697
	5.	Process Design Considerations		698
		5.1	Process Adoption and Advantages	698
		5.2	Process Operation and Troubleshooting	699
		5.3	Process Limitations	700
		5.4	Process Design Criteria	700
	6.	Process Application Examples		701
	7.	Future Development and Direction		701
	References			701

23	Land Application of Biosolids
	Nazih K. Shammas and Lawrence K. Wang			705
	1.	Introduction		705
	2.	Recycling of Biosolids Through Land Application		706
	3.	Description		706
	4.	Advantages and Disadvantages		708
	5.	Design Criteria		709
	6.	Performance		710
	7.	Cost of Recycling Through Land Application		712
	8.	Biosolids Disposal on Land (Landfill)		712
	9.	Biosolids Landfill Methods		713
		9.1	Biosolids-Only Trench Fill	713
		9.2	Biosolids-Ony Area Fill	714
		9.3	Co-Disposal With Refuse	716
		9.4	Landfilling of Screenings, Grit, and Ash	717
	10.	Preliminary Planning		717
		10.1	Biosolids Characterization	717
		10.2	Selection of a Landfilling Method	719
		10.3	Site Selection	719
	11.	Facility Design		722
		11.1	Regulations and Standards	722
		11.2	Site Characteristics	722
		11.3	Landfill Type and Design	724
		11.4	Ancillary Facilities	724
		11.5	Landfill Equipment	728
		11.6	Flexibility, Performance, and Environmental Impacts	728
	12.	Operation and Maintenance		728
		12.1	Operations Plan	731
		12.2	Operating Schedule	731
		12.3	Equipment Selection and Maintenance	731
		12.4	Management and Reporting	731
		12.5	Safety	733
		12.6	Environmental Control	733
	13.	Site Closure		735
		13.1	Ultimate Use	735
		13.2	Grading at Completion of Filling	735
		13.3	Landscaping	735
		13.4	Continued Leachate and Gas Control	735
	14.	Costs of Biosolids Disposal on Land (Landfill)		735
		14.1	General	735
		14.2	Hauling of Biosolids	736
		14.3	Energy Requirements	738
		14.4	Costs	738
	15.	Examples		741
		15.1	Example 1 Typical Biosolids Application Rate Scenario	741
		15.2	Example 2 Hauling of Biosolids	741
	Nomenclature			742
	References			742
	Appendix			745

Appendix: Conversion Factors
	Lawrence K. Wang			747

Index				811

Vorwort

Preface

The past thirty years have seen the emergence of a growing desire worldwide that positive actions be taken to restore and protect the environment from the degrading effects of all forms of pollution - air, water, soil, and noise. Because pollution is a direct or indirect consequence of waste, the seemingly idealistic demand for "zero discharge" can be construed as an unrealistic demand for zero waste. However, as long as waste continues to exist, we can only attempt to abate the subsequent pollution by converting it to a less noxious form. Three major questions usually arise when a particular type of pollution has been identified: (1) How serious is the pollution? (2) Is the technology to abate it available? and (3) Do the costs of abatement justify the degree of abatement achieved? This book is one of the volumes of the Handbook of Environmental Engineering series. The principal intention of this series is to help readers formulate answers to the above three questions.

The traditional approach of applying tried-and-true solutions to specific pollution problems has been a major contributing factor to the success of environmental engineering, and has accounted in large measure for the establishment of a "methodology of pollution control." However, the realization of the ever-increasing complexity and interrelated nature of current environmental problems renders it imperative that intelligent planning of pollution abatement systems be undertaken. Prerequisite to such planning is an understanding of the performance, potential, and limitations of the various methods of pollution abatement available for environmental scientists and engineers. In this series of handbooks, we will review at a tutorial level a broad spectrum of engineering systems (processes, operations, and methods) currently being utilized, or of potential utility, for pollution abatement. We believe that the unified interdisciplinary approach presented in these handbooks is a logical step in the evolution of environmental engineering.

Treatment of the various engineering systems presented will show how an engineering formulation of the subject flows naturally from the fundamental principles and theories of chemistry, microbiology, physics, and mathematics. This emphasis on fundamental science recognizes that engineering practice has in recent years become more firmly based on scientific principles rather than on its earlier dependency on empirical accumulation of facts. It is not intended, though, to neglect empiricism where such data lead quickly to the most economic design; certain engineering systems are not readily amenable to fundamental scientific analysis, and in these instances we have resorted to less science in favor of more art and empiricism.

Because an environmental engineer must understand science within the context of application, we first present the development of the scientific basis of a particular subject, followed by exposition of the pertinent design concepts and operations, and detailed explanations of their applications to environmental quality control or remediation. Throughout the series, methods of practical design and calculation are illustrated by numerical examples. These examples clearly demonstrate how organized, analytical reasoning leads to the most direct and clear solutions. Wherever possible, pertinent cost data have been provided.

Our treatment of pollution-abatement engineering is offered in the belief that the trained engineer should more firmly understand fundamental principles, be more aware of the similarities and/or differences among many of the engineering systems, and exhibit greater flexibility and originality in the definition and innovative solution of environmental pollution problems. In short, the environmental engineer should by conviction and practice be more readily adaptable to change and progress.

Coverage of the unusually broad field of environmental engineering has demanded an expertise that could only be provided through multiple authorships. Each author (or group of authors) was permitted to employ, within reasonable limits, the customary personal style in organizing and presenting a particular subject area; consequently, it has been difficult to treat all subject material in a homogeneous manner. Moreover, owing to limitations of space, some of the authors' favored topics could not be treated in great detail, and many less important topics had to be merely mentioned or commented on briefly. All authors have provided an excellent list of references at the end of each chapter for the benefit of the interested readers. As each chapter is meant to be self-contained, some mild repetition among the various texts was unavoidable. In each case, all omissions or repetitions are the responsibility of the editors and not the individual authors. With the current trend toward metrication, the question of using a consistent system of units has been a problem. Wherever possible, the authors have used the British system (fps) along with the metric equivalent (mks, cgs, or SIU) or vice versa. Conversion Factors for Environmental Engineers are attached as an appendix in this handbook for the convenience of international readers. The editors sincerely hope that this duplicity of units' usage will prove to be useful rather than being disruptive to the readers.

The goals of the Handbook of Environmental Engineering series are: (1) to cover entire environmental fields, including air and noise pollution control, solid waste processing and resource recovery, physicochemical treatment processes, biological treatment processes, biosolids management, water resources, natural control processes, radioactive waste disposal, and thermal pollution control; and (2) to employ a multimedia approach to environmental pollution control since air, water, soil, and energy are all interrelated.

As can be seen from the above handbook coverage, no consideration is given to pollution by type of industry or to the abatement of specific pollutants. Rather, the organization of the handbook series has been based on the three basic forms in which pollutants and waste are manifested: gas, solid, and liquid. In addition, noise pollution control is included in the handbook series.

This particular book, Volume 6, Biosolids Treatment Processes, is a sister book to Volume 7, Biosolids Engineering and Management. Both biosolids books have been designed to serve as basic biosolids treatment textbooks as well as comprehensive reference books. We hope and expect they will prove of equal high value to advanced undergraduate and graduate students, to designers of wastewater, biosolids, and sludge treatment systems, and to scientists and researchers. The editors welcome comments from readers in all of these categories. It is our hope that both books will not only provide information on the physical, chemical and biological treatment technologies, but will also serve as a basis for advanced study or specialized investigation of the theory and practice of individual biosolids management systems.

This book, Volume 6, Biosolids Treatment Processes, covers the topics of biosolids characteristics and quantity, gravity thickening, flotation thickening, centrifugation, anaerobic digestion, aerobic digestion, lime stabilization, low temperature thermal processes, high temperature thermal processes, chemical conditioning, stabilization, elutriation, polymer conditioning, drying, belt filter, composting, vertical shaft digestion, flotation, biofiltration, pressurized ozonation, evaporation, pressure filtration, vacuum filtration, anaerobic lagoons, vermicomposting, irradiation, and land application.

The sister book, Volume 7, Biosolids Engineering and Management, covers additional topics on sludge and biosolids transport, pumping and storage, sludge conversion to biosolids, waste chlorination for stabilization regulatory requirements, cost estimation, beneficial utilization, agricultural land application, biosolids landfill engineering, ocean disposal technology assessment, combustion and incineration, and process selection for biosolids management systems.

The editors are pleased to acknowledge the encouragement and support received from their colleagues and the publisher during the conceptual stages of this endeavor. We wish to thank the contributing authors for their time and effort, and for having patiently borne our reviews and numerous queries and comments. We are very grateful to our respective families for their patience and understanding during some rather trying times.

Lawrence K. Wang, Lenox, MA
Nazih K. Shammas, Lenox, MA
Yung-Tse Hung, Cleveland, OH

Klappentext

HANDBOOK OF ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING VOLUME 6

Biosolids Treatment Processes

Edited by

Lawrence K. Wang, PhD, PE, DEE
Zorex Corporation, Newtonville, NY
Lenox Institute of Water Technology, Lenox, MA
Krofta Engineering Corporation, Lenox, MA

Nazih K. Shammas, PhD
Lenox Institute of Water Technology, Lenox, MA
Krofta Engineering Corporation, Lenox, MA

Yung-Tse Hung, PhD, PE, DEE
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering
Cleveland State University, Cleveland, OH

The past 30 years have seen the emergence of a growing desire worldwide to take positive actions to restore and protect the environment from the degrading effects of all forms of pollution: air, noise, solid waste, and water. The Handbook of Environmental Engineering series guides readers to answer the fundamental questions facing pollution in the modern era - How serious is pollution? Is the technology needed to abate it not only available, but feasible? Among the topics included in this, the sixth volume, are: biosolids properties, thickening, stabilization, disinfection, conditioning, dewatering, high temperature processes, drying, composting, utilization and disposal to land.

Cutting-edge and highly practical, the Handbook of Environmental Engineering, Volume Six, Biosolids Treatment Processes offers educators, students, and engineers a strong grounding in the principles of environmental engineering, as well as providing effective methods for developing optimal abatement technologies at costs that are fully justified by the degree of abatement achieved. With an emphasis on using the best available technologies, the authors of these volumes present the necessary engineering protocols derived from the fundamental principles of chemistry, physics, and mathematics, making these volumes essential references for environmental pollution researchers.

Covers all biosolids treatment processes
Emphasis on using best available technologies
Reference of practical use to educators, engineers, operators and researchers

Contents

Characteristics and Quantity of Biosolids. Gravity Thickening. Flotation Thickening. Centrifugation Clarification and Thickening. Anaerobic Digestion. Aerobic Digestion. Lime Stabilization. Pressurized Ozonation. LowTemperature Thermal Treatment Processes. Irradiation and Solid Substances Disinfection. Inorganic Chemical Conditioning and Stabilization. Elutriation and Polymer Conditioning. Drying Beds. Animal Wastes Treatment Using Anaerobic Lagoons. Vertical Shaft Digestion, Flotation and Biofiltration. Vacuum Filtration. Belt Filter Presses. Pressure Filtration. Evaporation Processes. High Temperature Thermal Processes. Biosolids Composting. Vermicomposting Process. Land Application of Biosolids. Appendix: Conversion Factors. Index.

Handbook of Environmental Engineering
VOLUME 6: BIOSOLIDS TREATMENT PROCESSES
ISBN: 978-1-58829-396-1
E-ISBN: 978-1-59259-996-7

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Index

A
Acid
- forming bacteria, 137
- phase, 137
Activated sludge, 10-22
- production, 10-13
Adsorber, 287
Aerated static pile bulking agents, 667
- energy requirements, 667-668
- environmental impact, 668-669
- oxygen supply, 666-667
- process, 664-670
- - description, 664
Aerobic digestion, 177-205, 456-463
- advantages, 178
- air requirement, 195
- autothermal thermophilic, 179-180
- - using oxygen, 181
- capital costs, 189-191
- continuous operation, 179
- design, 186-189
- - considerations, 181-185
- - - dewatering, 194-195
- - - mixing, 194
- - - oxygen requirements, 183-184
- - - pH reduction, 194
- - - solids reduction, 182-183
- - - temperature, 181-182
- - input-output data, 186-189
- - parameters, 186-188
- - performance
- - - supernatant quality, 185-186
- - - volatile solids reduction, 185
- - - volatile solids loading, 194
- - design procedure, 186-189
- digester volume, 193-194, 196-197
- disadvantages, 178-179
- microbiology, 178
- O&M costs, 190-191
- oxygen requirement, 194-195, 196
- performance, 185-186
- power requirement, 197
- process
- - description, 178-179
- - variations, 179-181
- semibatch operation, 179
- sludge
- - age, 196
- - quantity, 193
- - wasting schedule, 194
- solids retention time, 194
- volatile solids reduction, 196
Agitated in-vessel composting bioreactor, 671
Air
- and oxygen requirements, complete combustion, 618
- compression, 265
- drying, 265
- filtration, 265
- preparation, ozone, 265
- saturation, flotation, 86
- to-solids ratio, 81, 89, 90, 92, 93
Alkaline stabilization, 207
- advantages and disadvantages, 212
- biosolids
- - chemical characteristics, 220
- - environmental impacts, 213
- - deodorization, 217
- - equipment, 216
- - facility for biosolids, design factors, 216
- - process performance, 217
- chemical compounds in biosolids, 221, 222
- process design, 223
- - lime handling facilities, 223
Anaerobic
- biological reactions, 136
- contact
- - column schematic, 150
- - process study procedures, 146
- - schematic, 140
- decomposition, 135
- digester
- - capital and operating costs, 162
- - cost estimate, 162, 163
- - covers, 150
- - design examples, 163
- - - using modified anaerobic contact process, 167
- - - using standards design, 163
- - - performance criteria, 162
- - reactor configuration, 139
- - external heat exchanger, 157
- - gas
- - - collection, storage, and distribution, 158
- - - piping schematic, 159
- - - utilization, 159
- - heating system, 154
- - heat losses, 156
- - maintenance of reactor stability, 161
- - mixing devices, 151
- - sludge and supernatant withdrawal, 161
- - sludge pumping and piping considerations, 160
- - system equipment and appurtenances, 150
- - tank construction and system components, 149
- - turbine-type mixing system, 155
- digestion, 135, 457, 484, 487
- - effect of solid detention time, 142
- - effect of temperature, 142
- - gas production and utilization, 142
- - management, 160
- - management, control of sludge feed, 160
- - nutrient requirements, 142
- - organic loading
- - - parameters, 140
- - - rate, 141
- - reactor configurations, 138
- - - anaerobic contact process with sludge recycle, 138
- - - anaerobic filter, 138
- - - single-stage, unmixed, 138
- - - two-stage, mixed primary, 138
- - solid waste, 135
- - time and temperature relationships, 141
- - wastewater sludges, 135
- lagoons, 431, 432
- - applications, 432
- - application examples, 443
- - construction cost, 440
- - design criteria, 437
- - design
- - - examples, 443
- - - data gathering and compilation, 437
- - energy
- - - consumption, 440
- - - costs, 440
- - limitations, 432
- - minimum top width, embankments, 439
- - minimum treatment volume, 433
- - operation and maintenance cost, 440
- - process
- - - design, 433
- - - performance, 432
- - - reliability, 432
- - sludge volume, 436
- - volumes and depth requirement, 434
- - waste volume for treatment period, 434
- - volume requirement, 436
- - with recycle system, 439
- process, 136
- - biochemistry, 137
- - metabolic pathways, 139
- - microbiology, 137
- - recent development, 168
- - performance data 171
- reactor design and sizing, 146
- treatability studies, design practice, 144
- treatment process, 136
- - advantages, 136
- trickling filter, 140
Ancillary facilities, landfill, 724
Animal wastes
- anaerobic lagoons, 431
- treatment, 431
Annual evaporation data, 600
Anoxic gas flotation, AGF, 492
Ash, 357
ATAD, autothermal thermophilic aerobic digester, 452, 456-463, 488
- air, 191-193, 452, 456, 460
- oxygen, 191-193, 452, 456, 462-463
Attached-suspended growth biosolids, 26-27
Average evaporation data in US, 438

B
Bacteria, 334-335
Basket centrifuge, 103-104
- achievable solids concentration, 103
- costs, 109-110
- - construction, 113
- - O&M, 114
- cycle time, 103
- energy requirements, 109-110
- feed rate, 103
- performance, 109-110, 118
Belt press, 255-258, 466
Belt filter presses, 519-539
- advantages, 521-522
- applications, 522
- cake thickness, 534
- capital cost, 530
- costs, 530-532
- design criteria, 523-527
- - pressures, 526-527
- disadvantages, 522
- energy requirements, 533-534
- O&M, 528-530
- - belt
- - - rate travel, 530
- - - tracking, 529
- - biosolids conditioning, 529
- - compression, 530
- - costs, 530-532
- - inspection, 529
- - loading rate, 530
- - sampling and analysis, 529
- - solids, 529
- - spray adjustment, 529
- odor control, 527-528
- performance, 522-523
- pressing capacity, 533
- pressures, 534
- principles, 520-21
- weight of water in cake, 534
Biofiltration, 451, 453, 464, 466-470, 481
- applications, 468
- costs, 469
- design considerations, 468
- process description, 467
Biological
- biosolids, 10-27
- - characteristics, 10
- flotation, 72
Biosolids
- and site conditions, 720
- anaerobic
- - digestion, 135
- - anaerobic lagoon, 432
- bacteria, 219
- centrifugation, 101-134, 466
- characteristics and quantity, 1-44
- characterization, 28-35, 717
- chlorine stabilization, 376-383
- class A, 707
- class B, 707
- codisposal with refuse, 716
- combustion, 614-618
- composting, 645-687
- - applicability, 647-649
- - calculation of composting area requirements, 681-682
- - calculation of bulking agent to biosolids ratio, 679
- - calculation of the ratio of new to recycled bulking agent, 679-681
- - costs, 674-675
- - - capital, 674-675
- - design criteria, 654-659
- - environmental impact, 647-649
- - O&M, 675
- - process description, 651-654
- compressibility, 33-34
- conditioning cost, 364-368
- - capital, 364-365
- - electricity means, 375
- - O&M cost, 365-368
- dewaterability, 29-31
- dewatering processes, 465
- digestion and stabilization, 454
- disposal on land (landfill), 712
- elutriation, 389
- evaporation, 583
- fixed solids, 34
- flotation, 71, 451
- heavy metals, 34-35
- high temperature thermal processes, 613
- incineration, 620-627
- land application program, elements, 712
- landfill methods, 713
- - area fill layer, 715
- - area fill mound, 715
- - biosolis-only area fill, 714
- - biosolids-only trench fill, 713
- - dike containment, 715
- - narrow trenches, 713
- - wide trenches, 714
- lime mixing tank
- - design, 228
- - mixing, 230
- - sizing, 229
- low temperature thermal processes, 299
- management, 4
- oxyozosynthesis, 244
- pH, 34
- polymer conditioning, 389
- pressurized ozonation, 243
- production, 2, 737
- property, exceptional quality, 707
- septicity, 34
- sludge drying beds, 403
- slurries, mechanical mixer specifications, 231
- specific gravity, 28-29
- specific resistance, 33
- stabilization, 375-376
- - lime dose requirement, 214, 215
- storage with lime addition, pH change, 216
- temperature, 34
- thickening, 30-31, 71
- trace elements, 34-45
- vermicomposting, 689
- vertical shaft digestion, 451
- volatile solids, 34
- wasting methods, 20
- bridging model, destabilization of colloids by polymers, 397
Buchner funnel test, 362-364

C
Capillary suction time (CST), 364
- testing, 549-550
Capital cost, codisposal by combustion, starved air combustion (SAC), 629
Carver-Greenfield dehydration system, 591
Cationic polyelectrolyte in solution, configuration, 396
Cement kiln dust, 357
Centrifugation, 101-134, 466
- advantages, 124
- clarification and thickening, 101-134
- cannery waste sludge, 122
- coal and refuse, 114-121
- disadvantages, 124
- electroplating waste, 112-114
- metallurgical refinery sludge, 121-122
- paper sludges, 110-112
- potato wastes, 122
- principles, 102
- pulp sludges, 110-112
Centrifuges
- construction material, 124
- design, 122-126
- - applications, 128
- - criteria, 125
- - procedure, 125-126
- effects of parameters, 125
- manufacturers, 123-124
- operation and maintenance, 126-128
- performance, 109-122
- selection, 122
- types, 103
Chemical biosolids, 27-28
- conditioning of, 354
Chemisorbed water, 102-103
Chlorine, 272
- stabilization, 376-383
- - advantages, 379-380
- - characteristics of stabilized biosolids, 380-381
- - chlorine requirements, 379-380
- - cost, 381-383
- - disadvantages, 380
- - process description, 376-378
- - subnatant quality, 381
- - supernatant quality, 381
Clarification, centrifugation, 101-134
Class A biosolids, 209
Class B biosolids, 209
Classical pollutant removal
- flotation, 256
- ozonation, 250, 289
Closed-loop ozonation, 288
Coal, 357
Codisposal by combustion, 627
- applications, 628
- design basis for costs, 629
- design parameters, 628
- energy requirements, 629
- environmental impact, 629
- performance, 628
- reliability, 628
- starved air combustion (SAC), 628
- - operating cost, 630
Codisposal, biosolids/refuse mixture, 716
Codisposal, biosolids/soil mixture, 716
Coil spring-belt type vacuum filter, 500
Colloidally bound water, 102-103
Combustion, 614-18
- calculations, molal basis, 639
- chemical reactions, 616
Comparison, approximate and theoretical calculation, 641
Complete mix digester design, mean cell residence times, 148
Completely mixed biological waste treatment process, steady-state relationships, 148
Composition of primary biosolids, 9-10
Compost, 338, 464, 650-653
- class A, 650
- class B, 650
- Exception Quality (EQ), 650
- metal concentration, 650
- processes
- - with external bulking agent, 658-659
- - without external bulking agent, 656-658
- quality, 649-651
- temperature, 650
Composted sludge, gamma irradiation, 345
Composting, 338, 646
- moisture, 651-653
- nutrient concentration, 653
- oxygen supply, 653
- pH, 653
- temperature, 653
Concurrent elutriation in multiple tanks, 393
Conditioning
- and stabilization, 353-388
- chemical, 359-364
- dosage, 357-358
Conduction drying, 306
Continued leachate and gas control, landfill, 735
Continuous
- flow system, 695
- slaking, 228
Convection drying, 305
Conventional digester, 138
Cost
- biosolids disposal on land (landfill), 735
- flotation, 86
- hauling of biosolids, 738
- heat
- - conditioning, 303
- - drying, 308
- of recycling, land application, 712
- supplemental heat, lime addition and electricity, 232
- sludge drying bed, 420
- VSD, 486, 488
Countercurrent elutriation, 390
Cryogenic air separation, 285-286
Cryophilic aerobic digestion, 192
CT, concentration-time, 276
Cyanide removal, ozonation, 291

D
DAF (see also Dissolved air flotation)
- concrete or steel construction, 76
- dissolved air flotation, 71, 251-255, 453
- hydraulic loading, 79, 82
- pollutants removal, 256
- rectangular or circular shape, 76, 78
- solids loading, 80
- thickener, 71-99, 463
- - design criteria, 73
- - no recycle, 89, 91
- - process description, 74
- - process design, 88
- - with recycle, 90, 93
- - performance, 85
Decay coefficient, 14, 16, 17
Deep-shaft bioreactor (VSB), 452
Denitrification biosolids, 27
Design criteria
- for area fill layer, 716
- for area fill mound, 716
- for diked containment landfill, 716
- narrow trench landfill, 714
- wide trench landfill, 714
Design
- parameters, hauling of biosolids, 736
- procedure, hauling of biosolids, 736
Diffuser contactor for water and wastewater treatment, 267-268
Digester
- gas holder cover, 152
- heat transfer coefficients, 156
Digestion, 451-489
Dilution-to-threshold, D/T, 481
Direct
- drying, 305
- indirect rotary dryer, 320-321
Disinfection
- chemical, 336
- chlorine, 337
- electron irradiation, 339
- gamma irradiation, 343-349
- heat drying, 327
- high temperature thermal process, 338
- lime, 337
- long-term storage, 336
- low temperature thermal process, 337
- ozonation, 251, 276
- ozone, 274-276, 337
- quaternary ammonium compounds, 337
- solid substances, 336
Disk centrifuge, 107-108
- advantages, 108
- disadvantages, 108
- performance, 109
Dispersed air flotation, 71
Dissolved air flotation (DAF), 71, 251-255, 453
- double cell, 253
- single cell, 252
Dissolved gas flotation (DGF), 247-252
DO, dissolved oxygen, 15
Draft tube-type mixer, 154
Dried sludge, gamma irradiation, 345
Dry
- feeders, 227
- powder cationic polyelectrolytes, 395
- solids heating values, effect on autogenous combustion, 621
- solids heating values, effect on supplemental fuel consumption, 622
Drying
- beds, 403-430, 466
- lagoons, 585-590
- conduction, 306
- convection, 305
Dual digestion, 484, 485

E
E. foetida, 691
Earthworm
- conversion process, process design
- - considerations, 698
- - criteria, 700
- - limitations, 700
- - operation, 699
- - troubleshooting, 699
- process diagram, 691
Efficiencies, biosolids de watering processes, 737
Electroflotation, 72
Electron beam
- facility, 340
- scanner, 341
Electron irradiation, 339-343
- design considerations, 341
- performance, 342
- process description, 340
Elutriation, 373, 36, 389
- chemical conditioning, soluble ionic organic polymers (polyelectrolytes), 394
- chemical conditioning, soluble nonionic organic polymers, 394
- design examples, 399
- elutriate disposal considerations, 391
- process
- - benefit, 392
- - design
- - - considerations, 390
- - - new technology considerations, 391
- - - procedures, 392
- reactor design considerations, 390
Energy requirements, hauling of bio-solids, 738
Environmental
- control, landfill, 733, 734
- impact, DAF, 87
- problems, landfill, 734
Equipment
- landfill, 732
- performance characteristics, landfill, 729, 730
- selection and maintenance, landfill, 731
Eudrilus eugeniae, 691
Evaporation
- data, USA, 600
- lagoons, 584-590
- process reactor, 584, 602
Evaporative efficiency, 313
Evaporator, 590-604
- applications and limitations, 592
- design considerations, 593
- heat transfer coefficients, 594
- multiple-effect, 596, 598
- process description, 590
- single-effect, 595
- solar, 603
- steam, 602
- triple-effect, 592
- vertical short-tube, 591
Examples, land application, 741
Excess air
- effect on supplemental fuel requirement, 618
- temperature, effect on supplemental fuel requirement, 618
Extended aerated piles, 666

F
F/M ratio, 13, 17, 19
Facility design, landfill, 722
Factors affecting
- biosolids conditioning, 354-356
- solids removal, 7-9
- the heat balance, 617
- that influence the production of WAS, 13-16
FBF, fluidized furnace, 620-623
Feed
- composition, 15
- pattern, 16
- pump, 54
Ferric chloride, 356-357
Fiber-cloth-belt type vacuum filter, 500
Film layer purifying chamber contactor for water, 266, 267
Filter
- leaf testing, 360-362
- media, 505-506
- process control cake drying, 508
- - chemical conditioning, 508
- - efficiency, 508
- - filter cake quality
- - - heat treated biosolids, 508
- - inspection, 509
- - odor, 509
- - optimum operation, 508
- - production, 508-09
- - sampling and analysis, 509
- - tank agitation, 508
- - yield, 508
Filtration dewatering
- basic theory, 495
- filter aids, 495-496
- pressure drop, 495
- system, 495-497
Fixed digester cover, 151
Fixed-volume recessed plate filter press, 542, 545
Flash dryer system, 315
Flash drying process, 316
Flexibility, performance, and environmental impacts, landfill, 728
Float concentration, 82
Floating digester cover, 152
Flotation, 71-99, 251-255, 451, 462
- cost, 86
- heavy metal removal, 256
- organic chemical removal, 256
- thickener, 462, 487
fluidized bed furnace, FBF, 620-623
- applications, 623
- design basis for cost, 624
- design criteria, 623
- energy requirements, 624
- environmental impact, 624
- operation data, 624
- performance, 623
Food pasteurization, 337
Free water, 102-103
Freeze-thaw, 373-374
Fuel energy consumption rates, construction equipment, 738
Fungi, 336
Furnace combustion, comparison, approximate and theoretical calculation, 641

G
Gamma irradiation, 343-349
- design considerations, 346
- dried or composted sludge, 345
- facility, 344
- labor requirements, 347-348
- operational considerations, 348
- power requirement, 345
Gas-phase biofiltration, 451, 453, 464, 466-470, 481
GLUMRB Standards, 146
Grading at completion of filling, landfill, 735
Gravity thickeners, 47-55
- advantages, 47, 48
- capital cost, 55
- compression and storage zone, 53
- cost, 55-56
- design, 56-61
- - considerations, 49
- - input data, 57, 58
- - output data, 61
- - parameters, 58
- - procedure, 59
- floor slope, 54
- free board, 53
- hydraulic loading, 50
- maintenance materials cost, 56, 57
- minimum surface area, 49-51
- O&M cost, 55-57
- overflow rates, 52
- polymer addition, 54
- power consumption, 56
- settling zone, 53

H
Hauling of biosolids, 736
- example, 741
Heating values, sludges, 616
High rate (mixed) digester, 141
High temperature
- operations
- - principles, 614
- - - combustion factors, 614
- - - sludge fuel values, 614
- processes, 613
- - basic elements, 615
- - example, 619
- - technology review, 620
- thermal processes, 613
- - advantages, 614
High-rate digestion
- systems, 138
- VS reduction, 143
Hydrogen sulfide/sulfide equilibrium, pH
- effect, 218

I
Incineration
- design example, 632
- of sludge FBF, 621
Inorganic polymer conditioning process, thickening and dewatering, 399
Input data, hauling of biosolids, 736

L
Land application
- advantages, 708
- of biosolids, 705
- - description, 706
- - introduction, 705
- - maximum metal concentrations, 708
- - preliminary planning, 717
- design criteria, 709
- disadvantages, 708
- performance, 710
- site suitability, 709
Landfill
- burial, lime stabilized biosolids, 211
- design criteria, 725
- equipment, 728
- method, selection, 719
- type and design, 724
Landfilling of screenings, grit, and ash, 717
Landscaping, landfill, 735
Leachate quality from biosolids only
landfill, 727
Lime
- addition, biosolids, dewatering and settling characteristics, 219
- bulk density, 227
- characteristics, 223, 224
- delivery and storage, 225
- feeding, 227
- - only and supplemental heating pasteurization, 234
- - capital and operating costs, 235
- - cost comparison, 235
- reaction
- - hydrated lime, 225
- - quick lime, 225
- stabilization, 207
- - current status and regulations, 208
- - design, 237
- - - component sizing, 237
- - - criteria, 213
- - - example, 235
- - - loading, 235, 236
- - - objective, 213
- - full-scale lime stabilization facility, 208
- - history, 208
- - of biosolids, applicability, 211
- - operation, flow diagram, 210
- - pathogen reduction, 218
- - process description, 208
- - systems
- - - capital and operating costs, 232
- - - cost and energy usage, 232
- - - theory, 212
- storage and feed equipment, 226
Liquid
- cationic polyelectrolytes, 396
- sludge vermistabilization (LSVS) process, 692
LSVS reactors, 692

M
Management and reporting, landfill, 731
Maximum allowable pollutant concentrations, biosolids, landfill, 723
Mesophilic digestion, 141
Methane
- Fermentation Phase, 138
- formation
- - bacteria, 137
- - step, 138
- production equation, 144
Minimum anaerobic digester capacities, 146
Multiple
- elutriation, 390
- - in a single tank, 392
- - hearth furnace
- - - applications, 625
- - design basis for costs, 627
- - design criteria, 626
- - energy requirements, 626
- - environmental impact, 626
- - operations data, 627
- - performance, 626

O
Obligate anaerobes, 137
Operating schedule, landfill, 731
Operation and maintenance
- biosolids landfill, 728
- costs
- - area landfill, 740
- - narrow and wide trench landfill, 739
Operations plan, landfill, 731
Organic wastes, nature, 136
Output data, hauling of biosolids, 737
Oxygen requirements, complete combustion, 617

P
Part 503 Rule, 209, 707
PFRP treatment, 231
Pilot digester
- schematic, 145
- study procedures, 145
Polyacrylamide molecule, 395
Polyelectrolyte
- additions for various sludges, 399
- conditioning process
- - dewatering, 398
- - sludge thickening, 396
- determination, 399
- process control, 399
Polymer conditioning, 389
Process to Further Reduce Pathogens (PFRP) Requirements, 694
Progress in vermicomposting, outside US 696
PSRP treatment, 230

R
Raw sludge VS reduction, 143
Recycling of biosolids, land application, 706
Reduction in volatile matter by digestion, 141
Regulations and standards, landfill, 722

S
SAC, approximate combustion calculation, supplemental fuel requirements, 637
Safety, landfill, 733
Saprophytic bacteria, 137
Sick digesters, 137
Site and equipment costs
- area landfill, 740
- narrow and wide trench landfill, 739
Site closure, landfill, 735
Site selection methodology, landfill, 721
Site selection, landfilling method, 719
Sludge
- heating system schematic, 155
- heating value, experimental methods, 616
- incineration
- - fluidized bed furnace, 623
- - multiple hearth furnace (MHF), 624, 625
- - regulatory matters, 642
- moisture
- - effect on autogenous combustion, 621
- - effect on supplemental fuel consumption, 622
- washing (elutriation), 390
Standard rate (unmixed) digester, 141
starved air combustion (SAC)
- applications and limitations, 631
- approximate calculation method, 633
- capital cost, 633
- design basis for costs, 632
- design criteria, 632
- energy requirements, 632
- operating cost, 633
- performance, 631
- sludge, 629, 630
- theoretical calculation method, 638
Suitability of biosolids for landfill, 718

T
Thermophilic digestion, 141
TP AD process, performance parameter, 173
Two-stage anaerobic process, 137
Typical biosolids application
- rate scenario, example, 741
- scenarios, 711
Typical digester section, 149

U
Ultimate use, landfill, 735
US EPA 40 CFR Part 503, 209, 707, 722

V
Vermicomposting process, 689
- future development and direction, 701
- problems, 694
- process
- - application examples, 701
- - description, 690
- technology
- - breakthrough, 694
- - development, 690
Vermiconversion System, 695
Vermistabilization process
- biosolids, 691
- current status, 697
- pioneers, 697
- resources, 697
Volatile solid loading factors, 147
- hydraulic detention time effect, 147
- sludge concentration effect, 147

W
Waste storage ponds, 441
- cross-section, 442
- layout, 442
- process description, 441
- process design, 441
Wastewater and sludge treatment, process selection, flow sheet, 391

Autor

Contributors

DONALD B. AULENBACH, PhD Professor, Lenox Institute of Water Technology, Lenox, MA, and Rensselaer Polytchic Institute, Troy, NY

SHOOU-YUH CHANG, PhD, PE Professor, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, North Carolina A&T State University, Greensboro, NC

SATYA P. CHAUHAN, PhD Senior Program Manager, Battelle Columbus Laboratory, Columbus, OH

J. PAUL CHEN, PhD Assistant Professor, Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, National University of Singapore, Singapore

WEI-YIN CHEN, PhD Assistant Professor, Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Mississippi, University, MS

JFFREY GUILD, BS, MS Regional Manager, NORAM Engineering and Constructors, Ltd., Vancouver, BC, Canada

YUNG-TSE HUNG, PhD, PE, DEE Professor, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Cleveland State University, Cleveland, OH

KATHLEEN HUNG LI, BS, MS Senior Technical Writer, NEC Unified Solutions, Irving, TX

YAN LI, PE, MS Environmental Engineer, Office of Waste Management, Department of Environmental Management, State of Rhode Island, Providence, RI

DAVID A. LONG, PhD Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Pennslyvania State University, University Park, PA

H. S. MURALIDHARA, PhD Senior Research Scientist, Battele Columbus Laboratory, Columbus, OH

DAVID POLLOCK, BS Regional Manager, NORAM Engineering and Constructors, Ltd., Vancouver, BC, Canada

GEORGE P. SAKELLAROPOULOS, PhD Professor, Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece

WILLIAM A. SELKE, PhD Professor, Lenox Institute of Water Technology, Lenox, MA and Advisor, Krofta Engineering Corporation, Lenox, MA

NAZIH K. SHAMAS, PhD Professor and Environmental Engineering Consultant, Ex-Dean and Director, Lenox Institute of Water Technology, Lenox, MA, Krofta Engineering Corporation, Lenox, MA

JERRY R. TARICSKA, PhD, PE, DEE Senior Environmental Engineer/Associate, Hole Montes, Inc., Naples, EL

LAWRENCE K. WANG, PhD, PE, DEE Dean & Director (Retired), Lenox Institute of Water Technology, Lenox, MA; Assistant to the President (Retired), Krofta Engineering Corporation, Lenox, MA; Vice President (Retired), Zorex Corporation, Newtonville, NY

CLINT WILLIFORD, PhD Associate Professor, Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Mississippi, University, MS

ROBERT C. ZIEGLER, PhD Section Head (Retired), Environmental Systems Section, Arvin/Calspan Advanced Technology Center, Buffalo, NY

SHUAI-WEN ZOU, MEng Research Fellow, Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, National University of Singapore, Singapore

Reviews

From the reviews: "This tome comprises 23 chapters of unequal length written by an ensemble of 20 authors ... . This book will be extremely useful to advanced undergraduate and graduate students - and I should also add to their teachers, preceptors and mentors -of civil and environmental engineering, to designers of wastewater treatment, biosolids and sludge treatment systems, and to scientists and researchers dealing with biosolids management operations." (J. G. LLaurado, Management of Environmental Quality, Vol. 19 (3), 2008)

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