Inhaltsverzeichnis

Vorwort

Preface

Surfaces and interfaces of all kinds determine our primary sensory experience of the world we inhabit, and our perception of solidity is very largely based on an interpretation of surface data. In the mind of the scientist, a process of abstraction has led to the familiar modeling of surfaces as two-dimensional boundaries between different parts of otherwise three-dimensional systems. Indeed, such 'ideal' interfaces satisfactorily engage with simple macroscopic models to describe mechanical, acoustical or optical phenomena as they appear to human perception. Such connections work because, on the length scale of a meter (and a few orders of magnitude above or below), the various dynamical responses of material systems are dominated by the bulk properties of their components.

The reliability of this perspective has been significantly undermined by the advent of nanotechnology. As the reader will find in most introductory presentations, the prefix nano derives from the Greek for 'dwarf', and the new usage follows its earlier adoption in quantitative unit terminology to denote a factor 10^-9 : indeed, nanotechnology deals with systems where the scale of typical lengths is from one up to some tens of nanometers (1nm = 10^-9 meter). To see why this makes a difference to the relationship between surface and bulk properties, it is instructive to reflect on the deeper physical meaning of such a length scale, which corresponds to a typical length of a few atomic bonds.¹ This means that in nanomaterials - materials whose dimensions are confined to the nanometer scale - atoms within the 'bulk' are never more than a few bond lengths away from an interface of some kind. Consequently it is no longer possible to consider any intrinsic property of such a material as independent from its boundary properties. Moreover, in some sense we could say that in shifting focus from the macro to the nano-world, we find materials shifting from primarily bulk-like to surface-like attributes, and it is their surface rather than bulk properties that determine system behavior.

There is a whole realm of fascinating phenomena associated with surfaces; although they afford stimulating opportunities to creative minds, their understanding it is by no means an easy endeavor: "God created all matter - but the surfaces are the work of the Devil" was Wolfgang Pauli's reported view. In this book, we touch on a number of recently developed concepts relating to the nanoscale optical and photonic properties of surfaces, without any attempt at completeness. Some of the ideas are still speculative, as in the case of Chapter 1 which addresses the interaction of light with moving interfaces. Such a concept is particularly intriguing in connection with photonic structures where light can be significantly slowed down - and where it is even possible to conceive superluminal effects. Chapter 2 steers the subject matter to topics of already proven practical application, the use of evanescent optical waves for sensing applications. Of course, the device implementation of any form of nanoscale response is ultimately subject to the development of efficient and inexpensive fabrication techniques, to achieve the necessary nanostructures. In Chapter 3, in the context of potential applications in biology, attention focuses on a case in point, porous silicon, which has captured much scientific attention over the last fifteen years and now seems well placed for significant commercial exploitation. A survey of integrated optoelectronic circuits in Chapter 4 puts us back in the context of one of the most relevant field of applications, where optics and nanotechnology are strongly pushing research and development. Metallic nanostructures are also of major interest, especially for phenomena related to surface plasmons (mobile charge oscillations at metallic-dielectric interfaces): Chapter 5 reviews the properties and applications of gold quantum dots. Finally, Chapter 6 concludes with another topic at the adventurous forefront of the subject, concerning the highly unusual optical properties of surfaces fabricated to develop a chiral topography.

We belive that the interplay of surface properties and optics will, in the years to come, more and more emerge as a broad but distinctive field of photonics, one that is rich both in its fundamental interest and its potential for creating major applications. We hope, with this book, to stimulate that interest and the creativity in our readers.

Zeno Gaburro, Trento
David L. Andrews, Norwich

February 2007

Klappentext

Springer Series in Optical Sciences 133

D. L. Andrews
Z. Gaburro

Frontiers in Surface Nanophotonics

With the rapid technical advancement of nanoscale fabrication, the science of optics has recently undergone a renaissance with the characterization of new and distinctive kinds of photonic interaction. Beyond the wellknown plasmonic processes, many of these effects also arise from intricate local field effects associated with surfaces, where the surface morphology determines the detailed electromagnetic behavior. As such interactions move into practical device applications across the globe, this book presents an overview of some cutting edge developments, contributed by members of several highly renowned research groups. Copiously illustrated and with extensive references to original literature, Frontiers in Surface Nanophotonics will appeal to a wide readership with interests in optics, materials science and nanotechnology.

springer.com

ISBN 978-0-387-48950-6

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Index

B

biosensors
- optical biosensors, 61-70, see also separate entry

- porous silicon electrical and optical biosensors, 49-70, see also under porous silicon

biotin-streptavidin system, 32
Bragg phenomenon, 144-145
Bruggeman formalism, 61, 133, 138

C

chiral STFs, 134-135, 144-145
- circular Bragg phenomenon, 134-135
- optical applications, 135
chromophores
- interacting with gold nanoparticles, 104-117
- - binding event, 104-105

- - fluorophores quenching, 105-114

- - fluorophores unspecifically interacting with nanoparticles, 116-117
- - nonquenched fluorophores directly linked to nanoparticles, 114-115
- - place-exchange reactions on, dynamics, 112
- - pyrene-functionalized gold nanoparticles, 109-110
common-gate amplifier (CGA), 92
constitutive equations, 3
Coulomb blockade, 102
coupled-wave theory, 144, 155-159
- coupled-wave ODEs, 155-157
- solution of boundary value problem, 158-159
- transfer matrices, 157
coupling techniques, 23-27
- coupling angles, determination, 27
crossover phenomenon
- analytical reconstruction of, 154-162
- genesis of, 159-162
- of spectral holes, 152-154

D

DNA detection, 65-66
Doppler shifts, 1-2, 8

E

electrical biosensors, 54-61, see also under porous silicon

evanescent waves
- as nanoprobes for surfaces and interfaces, 19-41
- glass transition measurements in LB films, 34-39
- surface functionalization and reaction recognition, 27-30
- thin polymer films swelling in solvent vapor, 33-34
- waveguides, 19-27, see also separate

entry evanescent scattering microscopy, 39-40

F

Floquet harmonics, 136, 139-140, 146
Floquet-Bloch theorem, 136
Fresnel drag, 9, 25

full-width-at-half-maximum (FWHM), 146

G

gold nanoparticles, luminescence of, 99-121, see also under luminescence

Goos-Hänchen shift, 20
gram-negative bacteria detection, 66-67

H

helicoidal morphology, of STFs, 129
heterogeneous integration and substrate removal, 78-80

I

IgG sensor, 69-70
inertial dielectric media
- electromagnetic waves in, 2-5

integrated optics sensor technology
- evanescent field in, 25
- sensitivity of, 30

K

Kronecker delta, 157

L

laser drivers, 85-92
- architecture, 85-86
- test setup and measured performance, 89-91
- three-stage transmitter design, implementation, and simulation, 87-89
- VCSEL and other models, 86-87
LB technique, 34-39
Lipopolysaccharide (LPS), 66
Lorentz transformation, 3, 7-8, 10
Luminescence
- of gold nanoparticles, 99-121
- - chromophores interacting with gold nanoparticles, 104-117, see also under chromophores

- electrochemical studies of, 102
- photoluminescent gold nanoparticles, 117-121
luminescence bands, solid-state model for, 119

M

material interface case, 5-12
Maxwell's equations, 2, 4, 20
mesoion, 30-32
microcavity sensors, 63-64
moving dielectric interfaces
- as photonic wavelength converters, 1-16
- inertial dielectric media electromagnetic waves in, 2-5
- material interface case, 5-12
- traveling interface case, 12-16

N

nanoparticles
- capped nanoparticle, 101
- gold nanoparticles, luminescence of, 99-121, see also under luminescence

nematic morphology, of STFs, 129

O

oligonucleotide hybridization, 29
- label-free detection of, 32-33
optical biosensors, 61-70
- biological sensing, 65-70
- - DNA detection, 65-66
- - gram-negative bacteria detection, 66-67
- - IgG sensor, 69-70
- - protein sensing, 67-69
- microcavity sensor design and sensitivity, 63-64
- - PSi microcavity, fabrication, 65
- sensing principle, 61-63
optical modulation amplitude (OMA), 85
optical waveguide, 19-27
optical-electrical-optical (OEO) conversions, 1
optoelectronic-VLSI (OE-VLSI) technology

- assumptions in, 74
- device design, fabrication, and performance, 73-95
- enabling analog circuit designs and performance, 85-95
- - laser drivers, 85-92, see also separate entry

- - receivers, 92-94: preamplifier designs, 92
- heterogeneous integration, 77-80
- - VCSEL and PD design and specifications, 77-78: heterogeneous integration and substrate removal, 78-80; optical and electrical properities, 78
OE-VLSI ASIC architectures, 80-84
- modular architecture, 83-84
- pixelized/smart pixel architecture, 80-83
OE-VLSI ASIC design space, 74-77

P

photoluminescent gold nanoparticles, 117-121
photonic phenomena
- moving dielectric interfaces in, 1-16, see also under moving dielectric interfaces

pixelized/smart pixel architecture, 80-83
planewave solution procedure, 150-152
plasmon resonance band, 101
polymer monoand multi-layer LB films, glass transition measurements in, 34-39
porous silicon
- materials science of, 49-54
- - electrical biosensors, 54-61: biological sensing, 60-61; chemical sensing, 58-59; flow-through sensor fabrication, 56-58; sensing principle, 55-56

- - formation, 50
- - morphology and porosity, 49-51
- - optical and electrical properties, 51-53
- - physical properties, control, 51-54
- porous silicon electrical and optical biosensors, 49-70
Poynting vectors, 6, 9-11, 14-15
protein sensing, 67-69
pyrene-functionalized gold nanoparticles, 109-110

Q

quantum size effect, 100-101

R

Rayleigh-Wood anomalies, 136, 146
R-matrix propagating algorithm, 143

S

sculptured thin films (STFs), 129-163
- canonical delineation of, 131-133
- chiral STFs, 134-135, see also separate entry
- general picture, 129-130
- growth of, 130-131 PVD of, 129-131
- - materials used for, 129
- macroscopic conception, 131
- morphologies, canonical classes of, 129
- nematic and helicoidal morphologies of, 129
- slanted chiral STFs, optics of, 129-163, see also separate entry

silanization, 28
slanted chiral STFs, optics of, 129-163
- coupled-wave theory, 155-159, see also separate entry

- genesis, 135-137
- response to plane waves, 138-149
- - circular Bragg phenomenon at normal incidence, 144-147: chiral STFs, 144-145
- - circular Bragg phenomenon at oblique incidence, 147-149
- - electromagnetic wave propagation, 139-144: coupled-wave ODEs, 140-142; field representation, 139-140; planewave reflectance and transmittance, 143-144; solution of boundary value problem, 142-143

- geometry of the basic problem, 138-139

spectral holes in, 149-154
- crossover phenomenon of spectral holes, 152-154, see also under crossover phenomenon

- geometry of twist defect, 149-150
- planewave solution procedure, 150-152
Space Charge Region Modulation (SCRM) model, 55
Streptavidin, 32
surface functionalization, 27-30

T

tetratryptophan ter-cyclopentane (TWTCP), 66
transfer matrices, 157
transimpedance amplifier (TIA), 92
traveling interface case, 12-16

W

waveguides, 19-27
- applications
- - in integrated optics sensor technology, 25
- - in telecommunications, 22
- as nanoprobes for surfaces and interfaces, 19-41
- channel waveguides, 21
- - buried waveguide, 21
- - embedded channel waveguide, 21
- - strip loaded waveguide, 21
- characterization, measurement scheme for, 24
- classical coupling techniques, 23
- - end-fire coupling, 23
- - grating coupler, 23
- - prism coupler, 23

- fabrication, strategies for, 24

- free-standing waveguides, 21
- - fiber waveguide, 21-22
- - planar slab waveguide, 21-22
- geometries, 21
- photochemical isomerization reaction, monitoring, 30-32
- specific binding on, 28
- wavelength conversion, moving dielectric interfaces in, 1-16, see also under moving dielectric interfaces

Autoren

David Andrews, Professor of Chemical Physics at the University of East Anglia, conducts fundamental research in photonics and energy transport, optomechanical forces and nonlinear optics. He has two hundred research papers and nine other books to his name. Andrews is a Fellow of the SPIE, the International Society for Optical Engineering, and also of the Royal Society of Chemistry, and the Institute of Physics. He is Chair of the SPIE Nanotechnology Technical Group, and the Nanophotonics conference at Photonics Europe. Zeno Gaburro, received his Ph.D. in electrical engineering from the University of Illinois at Chicago in 1998. Currently he is senior researcher in photonics at the University of Trento, Italy. He has published over 60 research papers in international journals, and since 2002 he chairs a symposium at the annual meeting of SPIE.