DeutschesFachbuch.de : Biosolids Treatment Processes Handbook of Environmental Engineering


Contents

Preface				v
Contributors				xxiii

1	Characteristics and Quantity of Biosolids
	Nazih K. Shammas and Lawrence K. Wang			1
	1.	Introduction		1
	2.	Primary Biosolids		3
		2.1	Estimation of Primary Biosolids Production	3
		2.2	Factors Affecting Solids Removal	7
		2.3	Composition and Characteristics of Primary Biosolids	9
	3.	Biological Biosolids		10
		3.1	General Characteristics	10
		3.2	Activated Sludge	10
		3.3	Trickling Filter Biosolids	22
		3.4	Biosolids from Rotating Biological Contactors	26
		3.5	Coupled Attached-Suspended Growth Biosolids	26
		3.6	Denitrification Biosolids	27
	4.	Chemical Biosolids		27
	5.	Characteristics of Biosolids		28
		5.1	Specific Gravity and Volatility	28
		5.2	Preconcentration or Dewatering of Biosolids	29
		5.3	Particle Surface Charge and Hydration	31
		5.4	Particle Size	32
		5.5	Compressibility	33
		5.6	Biosolids Temperature	34
		5.7	Ratio of Volatile Solids to Fixed Solids	34
		5.8	Biosolids pH	34
		5.9	Septicity	34
		5.10	Trace Elements and Heavy Metals	34
	6.	Examples		35
		6.1	Example 1: Determination of Biosolids Volume	35
		6.2	Example 2: Determination of Solids Content After Digestion	36
		6.3	Example 3: Determination of Biosolids Production	36
		6.4	Example 4: Interaction of Yield Calculations and the Quantitative Flow Diagram	40
	Nomenclature			40
	References			41

2	Gravity Thickening
	Nazih K. Shammas and Lawrence K. Wang			45
	1.	Introduction		45
		1.1	General	45
		1.2	Gravity-Thickening	46
		1.3	Process Evaluation	46
		1.4	Types and Occurrence of Thickening Processes	47
	2.	Sedimentation Basins		47
		2.1	Primary Sedimentation	47
		2.2	Secondary Sedimentation	47
	3.	Gravity Thickeners		47
		3.1	Introduction	47
		3.2	Theory	48
		3.3	System Design Considerations	49
	4.	Cost		55
		4.1	Capital Cost	55
		4.2	Operating and Maintenance Cost	55
	5.	Design of Thickeners		56
		5.1	Input Data	57
		5.2	Design Parameters	58
		5.3	Design Procedure	59
		5.4	Output Data	61
	6.	Design Example 1		61
		6.1	Thickener Surface Area	61
		6.2	Hydraulic Loading	62
		6.3	Torque Requirements	62
		6.4	Tank Depth	62
	7.	Design Example 2		63
		7.1	Quantity of Sludge and Solids	63
		7.2	Surface Area of Thickeners	63
		7.3	Diameter of Thickeners	64
	8.	Design Example 3		64
		8.1	Height of Sludge at the Required Solids Concentration (C")	64
		8.2	Surface Area of Thickener	64
		8.3	Solid Loading	65
	Nomenclature			66
	References			66
	Appendix			69

3	Flotation Thickening
	Lawrence K. Wang, Nazih K. Shammas, William A. Selke, and Donald B. Aulenbach			71
	1.	Introduction		71
		1.1	Flotation Processes	71
		1.2	DAF Thickener Components	72
		1.3	DAF Thickener Advantages and Disadvantages	72
	2.	DAF Thickener Process Description		73
		2.1	Full presentation DAF-Thickening System	74
		2.2	Partial Pressurization DAF-Thickening System	74
		2.3	Recycle Pressurization DAF-Thickening System	74
	3.	Process Applications and Limitations		75
		3.1	Sludge Thickening Applications	76
		3.2	DAF Thickening Process Limitations	76
	4.	Process Design Considerations		76
		4.1	Rectangular or Circular Shape	76
		4.2	Concrete or Steel Construction	76
		4.3	Pilot-Scale or Bench-Scale Experiments	78
		4.4	Influent Feed Characteristics	78
		4.5	Thickener Surface Area	79
		4.6	Air-to-Solids Ratio	81
		4.7	Polymer Usage	83
		4.8	Pressurization System	83
		4.9	Operating Pressure	83
		4.10	Quantity of Pressurized Flow	84
		4.11	Number of Units	84
		4.12	Feed Sludge Line	84
		4.13	Thickened Sludge Removal	84
		4.14	Bottom Sludge Draw Off, Subnatant Line, Pressurized Flow Piping, and Controls	84
	5.	Process Performance		85
		5.1	Performance Data	85
		5.2	Factors Affecting Performance	85
	6.	Process Cost and Operation Considerations		86
		6.1	Capital Cost	86
		6.2	Operating and Maintenance Costs	87
	7.	Process Reliability and Environmental Impact		87
		7.1	Reliability	87
		7.2	Environmental Impact	87
	8.	Process Design Criteria and Procedures		88
		8.1	Design Criteria	88
		8.2	Input Data of DAF Thickener Design	88
		8.3	Design Parameters	89
		8.4	Design Procedure for DAF Thickener With No Recycle (Direct Pressurization)	89
		8.5	Design Procedures for DAF Thickener With Recycle	90
		8.6	Output Data of DAF Thickener Design	91
	9.	Design and Application Examples		91
		9.1	Example 1. Design of a DAF Thickener With No Recycle	91
		9.2	Example 2. Design of a DAF Thickener With Recycle	93
		9.3	Example 3. Complete DAF Thickening System Design	95
	Nomenclature			97
	References			97
	Appendix			100

4	Centrifugation Clarification and Thickening
	Lawrence K. Wang, Shoou-Yuh Chang, Yung-Tse Hung, H. S. Muralidhara, and Satya P. Chauhan			101
	1.	Introduction		101
	2.	Principles		102
	3.	Types of Water Associated with Solid Particles		102
	4.	Types of Centrifuges		103
		4.1	Basket Centrifuge	103
		4.2	Solid-Bowl Centrifuge	104
		4.3	Disc Centrifuge	107
	5.	Performance of Centrifuges in Sludge Dewatering		109
		5.1	Separation of Municipal Wastewater Treatment Plant Sludges by Centrifugation	109
		5.2	Separation of Pulp and Paper Sludges by Centrifugation	110
		5.3	Separation of Electroplating by Centrifugation	112
		5.4	Separation of Coals and Refuse by Centrifugation	114
		5.5	Separation of Metallurgical Refinery Sludge by Centrifugation	121
		5.6	Separation of Cannery Waste Biological Sludge by Centrifugation	122
		5.7	Separation of Potato Wastes by Centrifugation	122
	6.	Centrifugation Design Considerations		122
		6.1	General Guidelines for Selecting a Centrifuge for Sludge Dewatering	122
		6.2	Centrifuge Manufacturers	123
		6.3	Materials for Centrifuge Construction	124
		6.4	Advantages and Disadvantages of Centrifugation in Various Applications	124
		6.5	Design Criteria, Input Data, and Design Parameters	125
		6.6	Design Procedure	125
	7.	Operation and Maintenance		126
		7.1	Troubleshooting	126
		7.2	Preventive Maintenance	126
		7.3	Noise and Odor Control	128
	8.	Design and Practical Application Examples		128
		8.1	Example 1: Centrifugation System Design	128
		8.2	Example 2: Centrifugation System Chemical Requirements	129
		8.3	Example 3: Centrifugation System Cost Estimation	129
		8.4	Example 4: Centrifugation Case Study	129
	Nomenclature			131
	References			132

5	Anaerobic Digestion
	Jerry R. Taricska, David A. Long, J. Paul Chen, Yung-Tse Hung, and Shuai-Wen Zou			135
	1.	Introduction		135
	2.	Theory		136
		2.1	Nature of organic Wastes	136
		2.2	Biochemistry and Microbiology of the Anaerobic Process	137
		2.3	Reactor Configurations	138
		2.4	Organic Loading Parameters	140
		2.5	Time and Temperature Relationships	141
		2.6	Nutrient Requirements	142
		2.7	Gas Production and Utilization	142
	3.	Design Practice		144
		3.1	Anaerobic Treatability Studies	144
		3.2	Anaerobic Reactor Design and Sizing	146
		3.3	Tank Construction and System Components	149
		3.4	System Equipment and Appurtenances	150
		3.5	Gas Utilization	159
		3.6	Sludge Pumping and Piping Considerations	160
	4.	Management of Digestion		160
		4.1	Control of Sludge Feed	160
		4.2	Withdrawal of Sludge and Supernatant	161
		4.3	Maintenance of Reactor Stability	161
		4.4	Digester Performance Criteria	162
	5.	Capital and Operating Costs		162
		5.1	Generals	162
		5.2	Items Included in Cost Estimates	162
	6.	Design Examples		163
		6.1	Example Using Standards Design	163
		6.2	Example Using Solids Loading Factor	165
		6.3	Example Using Modified Anaerobic Contact Process	167
	7.	Recent Development in Anaerobic Process		168
	Nomenclature			173
	References			173

6	Aerobic Digestion
	Nazih K. Shammas and Lawrence K. Wang			177
	1.	Introduction		177
	2.	Process Description		178
		2.1	Microbiology	178
		2.2	Advantages	178
		2.3	Disadvantages	178
	3.	Process Variations		179
		3.1	Conventional Semibatch Operation	179
		3.2	Conventional Continuous Operation	179
		3.3	Autothermal Thermophilic Aerobic Digestion (Using Air)	179
		3.4	Autothermal Thermophilic Aerobic Digestion (Using Oxygen)	181
	4.	Design Considerations		181
		4.1	Temperature	181
		4.2	Solids Reduction	182
		4.3	Oxygen Requirements	183
		4.4	Mixing	184
		4.5	pH Reduction	184
		4.6	Dewatering	184
	5.	Process Performance		185
		5.1	Total Volatile Solids Reduction	185
		5.2	Supernatant Quality	185
	6.	Process Design		186
		6.1	Input Data	186
		6.2	Design Parameters	186
		6.3	Design Procedure	186
		6.4	Output Data	189
	7.	Cost		189
		7.1	Capital Cost	189
		7.2	Operation and Maintenance Cost	190
	8.	Recent Developments and Summary		191
		8.1	Recent Developments	191
		8.2	Summary	192
	9.	Design Examples		193
		9.1	Example 1	193
		9.2	Example 2	195
	Nomenclature			199
	References			199
	Appendix			205

7	Lime Stabilization
	Clint Williford, Wei-Yin Chen, Nazih K. Shammas, and Lawrence K. Wang			207
	1.	Introduction		207
	2.	Process Description		208
		2.1	History	208
		2.2	Current Status and Regulations	208
		2.3	Applicability	211
		2.4	Theory of the Process	212
		2.5	Advantages and Disadvantages	212
		2.6	Environmental Impacts	213
	3.	Design Criteria		213
	4.	Process Performance		217
		4.1	Deodorization	217
		4.2	Pathogen Reduction	218
		4.3	Dewatering and Settling Characteristics	219
		4.4	Chemical Characteristics	220
	5.	Process Design		223
		5.1	Design of Lime Handling Facilities	223
		5.2	Biosolids-Lime Mixing Tank Design	228
		5.3	PSRP Treatment to Meet Class B Requirements	230
		5.4	PFRP Treatment to Meet Class A Requirements	231
	6.	Cost and Energy Usage		232
		6.1	Capital and Operating Costs	232
		6.2	Energy Usage	234
		6.3	Design Comparison for Lime-Only and Supplemental Heating Pasteurization	234
	7.	Design Example		235
		7.1	Design Loading	235
		7.2	System Description	236
		7.3	Component Sizing	237
	Nomenclature			238
	References			238
	Appendix			241

8	Pressurized Ozonation
	Lawrence K. Wang and Nazih K. Shammas			243
	1.	Introduction		243
		1.1	Oxyozosynthesis Sludge Management System	244
		1.2	Oxyozosynthesis Wastewater Reclamation System	247
	2.	Description of Processes		249
		2.1	Ozonation and Oxygenation Process	249
		2.2	Flotation Process	251
		2.3	Filter Belt Press	255
		2.4	Performance of Oxyozosynthesis Sludge Management System	257
		2.5	Performance of Oxyozosynthesis Wastewater Reclamation System	259
	3.	Formation and Generation of Ozone		260
		3.1	Formation of Ozone	260
		3.2	Generation of Ozone	261
	4.	Requirements for Ozonation Equipment		264
		4.1	Feed Gas Equipment	264
		4.2	Ozone Generators	266
		4.3	Ozone Contactors	266
	5.	Properties of Ozone		269
	6.	Disinfection by Ozone		274
	7.	Oxidation by Ozone		277
		7.1	Ozone Reaction with Inorganics	277
		7.2	Ozone Reaction with Organic Material	280
	8.	Oxygenation and Ozonation Systems		285
		8.1	Oxygenation Systems	285
		8.2	Ozonation Systems	289
		8.3	Removal of Pollutants from Waste by Ozonation	291
	Nomenclature			291
	Acknowledgments			292
	References			292

9	Low-Temperature Thermal Treatment Processes
	Lawrence K. Wang, Clint Williford, Wei-Yin Chen, and Nazih K. Shammas			299
	1.	Introduction		299
	2.	Heat Conditioning Process		299
		2.1	Process Description	299
		2.2	Process Applications and Limitations	300
		2.3	Design Considerations	301
	3.	Heat Drying Process		304
		3.1	Process Description	304
		3.2	Design Considerations	305
	4.	Design and Application Examples		309
		4.1	Example 1	309
		4.2	Example 2	314
		4.3	Example 3	317
		4.4	Example 4	320
		4.5	Example 5	322
		4.6	Example 6	324
		4.7	Example 7	326
		4.8	Example 8	326
		4.9	Example 9	327
	Nomenclature			327
	References			328

10	Irradiation and Solid Substances Disinfection
	Lawrence K. Wang, J. Paul Chen, and Robert Ziegler			331
	1.	Introduction		331
		1.1	Disinfection and Irradiation	331
		1.2	Pathogenic Organisms	332
		1.3	Pathogen Occurrence in the United States	332
		1.4	Potential Human Exposure to Pathogens	332
	2.	Pathogens and Their Characteristics		333
		2.1	Viruses	333
		2.2	Bacteria	334
		2.3	Parasites	334
		2.4	Fungi	336
	3.	Solid Substances Disinfection		336
		3.1	Long-Term Storage	336
		3.2	Chemical Disinfection	336
		3.3	Low Temperature Thermal Processes for Disinfection	337
		3.4	High Temperature Thermal Processes for Disinfection	338
		3.5	Composting	338
		3.6	High Energy Radiation	339
	4.	Disinfection with Electron Irradiation		339
		4.1	Electron Irradiation Process Description	340
		4.2	Electron Irradiation Design Considerations	341
		4.3	Electron Irradiation Operational Considerations	342
		4.4	Electron Irradiation performance	342
	5.	Disinfection with γ -Irradiation		343
		5.1	γ -Irradiation Systems	343
		5.2	γ -Irradiation Design Considerations	346
		5.3	γ -Irradiation Operational Considerations	348
	References			349

11	Inorganic Chemical Conditioning and Stabilization
	Nazih K. Shammas and Lawrence K. Wang			353
	1.	Introduction		353
	2.	Factors Affecting Biosolids Conditioning		354
	3.	Inorganic Chemical Conditioning		356
		3.1	Ferric Chloride	356
		3.2	Lime	357
		3.3	Dosage Requirements	357
		3.4	Other Types of Inorganic Conditioners	357
	4.	Organic Polymers		359
	5.	Selection of a Conditioning Chemical		359
		5.1	Jar Test	359
		5.2	Filter Leaf Testing	360
		5.3	Buchner Funnel Test for Determination of Specific Resistances	362
		5.4	Capillary Suction Time	364
	6.	Cost		364
		6.1	Capital Cost	364
		6.2	Operation and Maintenance Cost	365
	7.	Thermal Conditioning		368
		7.1	HT Process	369
		7.2	LPO Process	370
		7.3	Economic Considerations	372
		7.4	Advantages and Disadvantages of HT/LPO Conditioning	372
	8.	Miscellaneous Conditioning Processes		373
		8.1	Elutriation	373
		8.2	Freeze-Thaw	373
		8.3	Mechanical Screening and Grinding	374
		8.4	Bacteria	374
		8.5	Electricity	375
		8.6	Solvent Extraction	375
		8.7	Ultrasonic	375
	9.	Biosolids Stabilization		375
	10.	Chlorine Stabilization		376
		10.1	Process Description	376
		10.2	Advantages and Disadvantages	378
		10.3	Chlorine Requirements	379
		10.4	Characteristics of Chlorine-Stabilized Materials	380
		10.5	Costs	381
	11.	Design Example		383
	Nomenclature			384
	References			384
	Appendix			388

12	Elutriation and Polymer Conditioning
	Lawrence K. Wang, Shoou-Yuh Chang, Yung-Tse Hung, and J. Paul Chen			389
	1.	Elutriation Process Description		389
	2.	Elutriation Process Design Considerations		390
		2.1	Reactor Design Considerations	390
		2.2	Elutriate Disposal Considerations	391
		2.3	New Technology Considerations	391
		2.4	Benefit	392
	3.	Elutriation Process Design Procedures		392
		3.1	Multiple Elutriation in a Single Tank	392
		3.2	Countercurrent Elutriation in Multiple Tanks	393
	4.	Chemical Conditioning with Soluble Organic and Inorganic Polymers		394
		4.1	Soluble Nonionic Organic Polymers	394
		4.2	Soluble Ionic Organic Polymers (Polyelectrolytes)	394
		4.3	Polyelectrolyte Conditioning Process for Sludge Thickening	396
		4.4	Polyelectrolyte Conditioning Process for Dewatering	398
		4.5	Inorganic Polymer Conditioning Process for Thickening and Dewatering	399
		4.6	Polyelectrolytes Determination and Process Control	399
	5.	Design Examples		399
		5.1	Example 1	399
		5.2	Example 2	400
		5.3	Example 3	400
		5.4	Example 4	400
	Nomenclature			401
	Acknowledgments			401
	References			401

13	Drying Beds
	Lawrence K. Wang, Y an Li, Nazih K. Shammas, and George P. Sakellaropoulos			403
	1.	Introduction		403
	2.	Sludge Drying Beds Process Description		404
		2.1	General Process Description	404
		2.2	Operation and Operating Variables	406
		2.3	Advantages and Disadvantages	406
	3.	Types of Sludge Drying Beds		407
		3.1	Conventional Sand Drying Beds	407
		3.2	Paved Dying Beds	408
		3.3	Wedge-Wire Drying Beds	408
		3.4	Vacuum-Assisted Drying Beds	409
	4.	Process Applications and Limitations		410
	5.	Process Performance, Theory, and Principles		410
	6.	Design Criteria, Requirements, and Other Considerations		415
		6.1	Land Requirements	415
		6.2	Covered Beds	416
		6.3	Sludge Conditioning	416
		6.4	Sludge Removal	416
		6.5	Sidestreams	417
		6.6	Bed Sizing Criteria	417
	7.	Environmental Impact and Energy Consumption		417
	8.	Cost		420
		8.1	Capital Costs	420
		8.2	Operating and Maintenance Cost	420
	9.	Process Monitoring		421
	10.	Design and Application Examples		422
		10.1	Example 1	422
		10.2	Example 2	423
		10.3	Example 3	427
		10.4	Example 4	427
		10.5	Example 5	427
	Nomenclature			428
	References			428

14	Animal Wastes Treatment Using Anaerobic Lagoons
	Lawrence K. Wang, Yung-Tse Hung, and J. Paul Chen			431
	1.	Introduction		431
	2.	Process Description		432
	3.	Applications and Limitations		432
	4.	Expected Process Performance and Reliability		432
	5.	Process Design		433
		5.1	Minimum Treatment Volume	433
		5.2	Waste Volume for Treatment Period	434
		5.3	Sludge Volume	436
		5.4	Lagoon Volume Requirement	436
		5.5	Anaerobic Lagoons	437
		5.6	Data Gathering and Compilation for Design	437
	6.	Energy Consumption and Costs of Anaerobic Lagoons		440
	7.	Waste Storage Ponds		441
		7.1	Process Description	441
		7.2	Process Design	441
	8.	Design and Application Examples		443
		8.1	Example 1	443
		8.2	Example 2	443
		8.3	Example 3	443
		8.4	Example 4	445
		8.5	Example 5	447
		8.6	Example 6	448
		8.7	Example 7	448
	Nomenclature			449
	References			449

15	Vertical Shaft Digestion, Flotation, and Biofiltration
	Lawrence K. Wang, Nazih K. Shammas, Jeffrey Guild, and David Pollock			451
	1.	Introduction		451
		1.1	Biosolids Treatment	451
		1.2	VSB and VSD	451
		1.3	Vertical Shaft Flotation (VSF) Thickening Process	453
		1.4	Gas-Phase Biofiltration	454
		1.5	Biosolids Digestion and Stabilization	454
	2.	Principles of Vertical Shaft Digestion (VSD) and Optional Anaerobic Digestion		456
		2.1	Theory and Principles of Aerobic Digestion	456
		2.2	Theory and Principles of Optional Anaerobic Digestion	457
		2.3	Combined VSD and Anaerobic Digestion	458
	3.	Description, Operation, and Applications of VSD System		458
		3.1	Process Description	458
		3.2	Process Operation	458
		3.3	Process Applications	459
	4.	Design Considerations of a Complete VSD System		460
		4.1	ATAD-Air	460
		4.2	ATAD-Oxygen	461
		4.3	Flotation Thickening After VSD	462
		4.4	Optional Dual Digestion System	464
		4.5	Biosolids Dewatering Processes	465
		4.6	Gas-Phase Biofiltration for Air Emission Control	466
		4.7	Operational Controls of Biofiltration	469
	5.	Case Study		470
		5.1	Facility Design and Construction	471
		5.2	VSD Demonstration Plan	473
		5.3	Design Criteria Development for VSD	475
	6.	Conclusions		489
	References			489
	Appendices			493

16	Vacuum Filtration
	Nazih K. Shammas and Lawrence K. Wang			495
	1.	Filtration Dewatering Systems		495
		1.1	Basic Theory	496
		1.2	Filter Aids	496
	2.	Principles of Vacuum Filtration		497
	3.	Application and Performance		501
	4.	Auxiliary Equipment		504
	5.	Operating Factors		505
		5.1	Machine Variables	505
		5.2	Filter Media	505
		5.3	Solids Feed Content	506
	6.	Physical and Process Control		507
		6.1	Physical Control	507
		6.2	Process Control	507
	7.	Upgrading Existing Units		509
	8.	Case History		510
	9.	Costs		510
	10.	Example		513
	Nomenclature			515
	References			515
	Appendix			518

17	Belt Filter Presses
	Nazih K. Shammas and Lawrence K. Wang			519
	1.	Introduction		519
	2.	Principles of Belt Filters		520
	3.	Advantages and Disadvantages		521
	4.	Application and Performance		522
	5.	Design Criteria		523
	6.	Design of High Pressure Zone		525
	7.	Odor Control		527
	8.	Operation and Maintenance		528
	9.	Costs		530
	10.	Design Examples		532
		10.1	Design Example 1	532
		10.2	Design Example 2	533
		10.3	Design Example 3	534
		10.4	Design Example 4	535
	Nomenclature			536
	References			537
	Appendix			539

18	Pressure Filtration
	Nazih K. Shammas and Lawrence K. Wang			541
	1.	Introduction		541
	2.	Process Description		543
	3.	Applicability		546
	4.	Advances and Disadvantages		546
	5.	Basis for System Design		547
	6.	Evaluation of Design Parameters		549
		6.1	Types of Tests	549
		6.2	Test Procedures	549
	7.	Design Procedures		550
	8.	Support Equipment and Processes		555
		8.1	Biosolids Conditioning Process	555
		8.2	Feed Pump System	557
		8.3	Cloth Washing and Cleaning	558
		8.4	Dewatered Cake Breakers	559
	9.	Operation, Maintenance, and Performance Characteristics		559
		9.1	Control of Machine Variables	560
		9.2	Control of Process Variables	561
		9.3	Control Considerations	561
	10.	Survey of Filter Presses		562
	11.	General Equipment Selection Criteria		567
	12.	Costs		567
	13.	Design Examples		569
		13.1	Design Example 1	569
		13.2	Design Example 2	574
	Nomenclature			577
	References			578
	Appendix			581

19	Evaporation Processes
	Lawrence K. Wang, Nazih K. Shammas, Clint Williford, Wei-Yin Chen, and George P. Sakellaropoulos			583
	1.	Introduction		583
		1.1	Drying and Evaporation Processes	583
		1.2	Natural Sludge Evaporation Lagoons and Evaporation Process Reactor	584
	2.	Sludge Evaporation Lagoons (Sludge Drying Lagoons)		585
		2.1	Process Description	585
		2.2	Process Applications and Limitations	586
		2.3	Design Considerations	587
		2.4	Cost	589
	3.	Evaporators		590
		3.1	Process Description	590
		3.2	Process Applications and Limitations	593
		3.3	Design Considerations	593
	4.	Design Examples		597
		4.1	Example 1	597
		4.2	Example 2	598
		4.3	Example 3	599
		4.4	Example 4	600
		4.5	Example 5	601
		4.6	Example 6	601
		4.7	Example 7	601
		4.8	Example 8	603
		4.9	Example 9	604
		4.10	Example 10	605
	Nomenclature			609
	References			610
	Appendix			612

20	High Temperature Thermal Processes
	Clint Williford, Wei-Yin Chen, Lawrence K. Wang, and Nazih K. Shammas			613
	1.	Introduction		613
	2.	Principles of High Temperature Operations - Combustion Factors		614
		2.1	Sludge Fuel Values	614
		2.2	Oxygen Requirements for Complete Combustion	617
		2.3	Factors Affecting the Heat Balance	617
		2.4	Example	619
	3.	Technology Review		620
		3.1	Incineration of Sludge FBF	620
		3.2	Incineration of Sludge MHF	624
		3.3	Codisposal by Combustion	627
		3.4	SAC of Sludge	629
	4.	Incineration Design Example		632
		4.1	Problem Statement	632
		4.2	Approximate Calculation Method	633
		4.3	Theoretical Calculation method	638
		4.4	Comparison of Approximate and Theoretical Calculation Methods	641
	5.	Regulatory Matters		642
	Nomenclature			642
	References			642

21	Biosolids Composting
	Nazih K. Shammas and Lawrence K. Wang			645
	1.	Introduction		645
	2.	Applicability and Environmental Impact		647
	3.	Compost Quality		649
	4.	Process Description		651
		4.1	Moisture	651
		4.2	Temperature	653
		4.3	pH	653
		4.4	Nutrient Concentration	653
		4.5	Oxygen Supply	653
	5.	Design Criteria and Procedures		654
		5.1	Compost Processes With No External Bulking Agent	656
		5.2	Compost Processes Using External Bulking Agent	658
	6.	Windrow Process		659
		6.1	Methodology and Design	659
		6.2	Energy Requirements	662
		6.3	Public Health and Environmental Impacts	662
	7.	Aerated Static Pile Process		664
		7.1	Process Description	664
		7.2	Individual Aerated Piles	665
		7.3	Extended Aerated Piles	666
		7.4	Oxygen Supply	666
		7.5	Bulking Agents	667
		7.6	Energy Requirements	667
		7.7	Public Health and Environmental Impacts	668
	8.	In-Vessel Composting System		669
		8.1	Process Description	669
		8.2	Advantages and Disadvantages	673
		8.3	Applicability	673
	9.	Costs		674
	10.	Design Examples		675
		10.1	Design Example 1 - Windrow Process	675
		10.2	Design Example 2 - Extended Aerated Pile System	678
	Nomenclature			682
	References			683
	Appendix			687

22	Vermicomposting Process
	Lawrence K. Wang, Yung-Tse Hung, and Kathleen Hung Li			689
	1.	Introduction		689
		1.1	Summary	689
		1.2	Process Description	690
	2.	Technology Development		690
	3.	Problems and Technology Breakthrough		694
		3.1	Introduction	694
		3.2	Problems	694
		3.3	Progress in Vermicomposting Outside the United States	696
	4.	Pioneers, Current Status, and Resources		697
		4.1	Pioneers and Current Status	697
	5.	Process Design Considerations		698
		5.1	Process Adoption and Advantages	698
		5.2	Process Operation and Troubleshooting	699
		5.3	Process Limitations	700
		5.4	Process Design Criteria	700
	6.	Process Application Examples		701
	7.	Future Development and Direction		701
	References			701

23	Land Application of Biosolids
	Nazih K. Shammas and Lawrence K. Wang			705
	1.	Introduction		705
	2.	Recycling of Biosolids Through Land Application		706
	3.	Description		706
	4.	Advantages and Disadvantages		708
	5.	Design Criteria		709
	6.	Performance		710
	7.	Cost of Recycling Through Land Application		712
	8.	Biosolids Disposal on Land (Landfill)		712
	9.	Biosolids Landfill Methods		713
		9.1	Biosolids-Only Trench Fill	713
		9.2	Biosolids-Ony Area Fill	714
		9.3	Co-Disposal With Refuse	716
		9.4	Landfilling of Screenings, Grit, and Ash	717
	10.	Preliminary Planning		717
		10.1	Biosolids Characterization	717
		10.2	Selection of a Landfilling Method	719
		10.3	Site Selection	719
	11.	Facility Design		722
		11.1	Regulations and Standards	722
		11.2	Site Characteristics	722
		11.3	Landfill Type and Design	724
		11.4	Ancillary Facilities	724
		11.5	Landfill Equipment	728
		11.6	Flexibility, Performance, and Environmental Impacts	728
	12.	Operation and Maintenance		728
		12.1	Operations Plan	731
		12.2	Operating Schedule	731
		12.3	Equipment Selection and Maintenance	731
		12.4	Management and Reporting	731
		12.5	Safety	733
		12.6	Environmental Control	733
	13.	Site Closure		735
		13.1	Ultimate Use	735
		13.2	Grading at Completion of Filling	735
		13.3	Landscaping	735
		13.4	Continued Leachate and Gas Control	735
	14.	Costs of Biosolids Disposal on Land (Landfill)		735
		14.1	General	735
		14.2	Hauling of Biosolids	736
		14.3	Energy Requirements	738
		14.4	Costs	738
	15.	Examples		741
		15.1	Example 1 Typical Biosolids Application Rate Scenario	741
		15.2	Example 2 Hauling of Biosolids	741
	Nomenclature			742
	References			742
	Appendix			745

Appendix: Conversion Factors
	Lawrence K. Wang			747

Index				811