DeutschesFachbuch.de : Fundamentals of Atmospheric Radiation An Introduction with 400 Problems Von Craig F. Bohren, Eugene Clothiaux

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Contents
PrefaceXI
1 Emission: The Birth of Photons 1
1.1 Wave and Particle Languages. 1
1.2 Radiation in Equilibrium with Matter. 4
1.2.1 Change of Variable. 8
1.2.2 Stefan-Boltzmann Law. 12
1.3 Blackbody Radiation. 12
1.4 Absorptivity and Emissivity. 14
1.4.1 Blackbody Radiation without a Blackbody. 15
1.4.2 Averages: A Critical Look. 17
1.4.3 Average Emissivity and Absorptivity. 20
1.4.4 Brightness and Color Temperature. 21
1.4.5 A Few Comments on Terminology. 22
1.4.6 The Solar Spectrum. 23
1.4.7 Imaging and Spectral Dependence of Contrast. 23
1.5 Emission by Clouds. 26
1.5.1 Directional Emissivity. 29
1.6 Emissivity and Global Warming. 31
References and Suggestions for Further Reading. 37
Problems. 42
2 Absorption: The Death of Photons 51
2.1 Exponential Attenuation. 51
2.1.1 Absorptivity and Absorption Coefficient: A Tenuous Connection 54
2.1.2 Absorptance and Absorbance: More Room for Confusion. 54
2.1.3 The Sum of Exponentials is not an Exponential. 55
2.1.4 Attenuation in a Nonuniform Medium. 56
2.2 Directional Emissivity of the Atmosphere. 57
2.3 Flux Divergence. 58
2.3.1 The Sum of Exponentials is not an Exponential: Another Example. 59
2.4 Absorption Cross Section. 60
2.5 The ABCs of Complex Variables. 66
2.6 Interpretation of the Molecular Absorption Coefficient. 70
2.6.1 Why the Obsession with Harmonic Oscillators?74
2.7 Classical versus Quantum-Mechanical Interpretation of Absorption. 76
2.7.1 Molecular Energy Levels. 78
2.8 Absorption by Molecules: The Details. 84
2.8.1 Absorption versus Spontaneous and Induced Emission. 85
2.8.2 Absorption by Atmospheric Molecules. 91
2.9 Absorption by Particles. 110
2.9.1 Molecules and Particles: Similarities and Differences. 115
References and Suggestions for Further Reading. 115
Problems. 119
3 Scattering: The Life of Photons 125
3.1 Scattering: An Overview. 125
3.2 Scattering by a Dipole. 127
3.3 Waves on a String: The One-Dimensional Wave Equation. 129
3.3.1 Solutions to the Wave Equation. 132
3.3.2 Sinusoidal Wave Functions. 133
3.4 Superposition and Interference. 134
3.4.1 Superposition of Waves with Different Frequencies. 136
3.4.2 Coherence. 136
3.4.3 Distinction between a Theory and an Equation. 139
3.4.4 Scalar Waves in Three Dimensions. 141
3.4.5 Acoustic Waves. 142
3.4.6 The Doppler Effect. 143
3.4.7 Interference of Waves with Different Directions. 146
3.4.8 Phase Shift on Scattering. 148
3.4.9 Scattering by Air and Liquid Water Molecules. 151
3.5 Scattering by Particles. 155
3.5.1 Complex Refractive Index. 158
3.5.2 Scattering by an Isotropie, Homogeneous Sphere. 165
3.5.3 Some Observable Consequences of Scattering of Visible Radiation by Spherical Pa...
References and Suggestions for Further Reading. 175
Problems. 179
4 Radiometry and Photometry: What you Get and What you See 185
4.1 The General Radiation Field. 185
4.1.1 Solid Angle. 186
4.1.2 Radiance. 188
4.1.3 Invariance of Radiance. 191
4.1.4 Imaging Devices and Radiance. 192
4.1.5 A Simple Lens Cannot Increase Radiance. 195
4.1.6 Radiance Changes Upon (Specular) Reflection and Refraction. 196
4.1.7 Luminance and Brightness. 200
4.1.8 A Few Words about Terminology and Units. 204
4.2 Irradiance. 206
4.2.1 Diffuse Reflection. 208
4.2.2 Flux Divergence. 212
4.3 Color. 212
4.3.1 Colorimetry: The CIE Chromaticity Diagram. 216
4.3.2 The Nonexistence of Absolute White. 224
References and Suggestions for Further Reading. 227
Problems. 229
5 Multiple Scattering: Elementary 241
5.1 Multiple Scattering by a Pile of Parallel Plates. 241
5.1.1 Why We Sometimes Can Ignore Interference and Sometimes Not 249
5.1.2 Radiative Transfer in Plane-Parallel Media. 251
5.1.3 Mean Free Path. 253
5.2 Two-Stream Theory of Radiative Transfer. 254
5.2.1 Conservative Scattering. 257
5.2.2 Conservative Scattering: Equilibrium Solution. 257
5.2.3 Conservative Scattering: Reflection and Transmission. 258
5.2.4 Conservative Scattering: Diffuse Radiation. 261
5.3 Multiple Scattering in an Absorbing Medium. 264
5.3.1 Clouds, Snow, Paint, Frozen Waterfalls, Wet Sand, and Broken Beer Bottles. 268
5.4 Emission. 277
References and Suggestions for Further Reading. 279
Problems. 281
6 Multiple Scattering: Advanced 291
6.1 N-Stream Theory and Beyond. 291
6.1.1 Directional Derivative. 292
6.1.2 Equation of Transfer. 293
6.2 Diffusion Theory: The Elements. 297
6.3 The Monte Carlo Method. 300
6.3.1 Path Length Distribution. 301
6.3.2 Scattering Direction Distribution. 303
6.3.3 Transforming Coordinate Axes. 308
6.3.4 Surface Reflection. 309
6.3.5 Emission. 310
6.3.6 Irradiance, Flux Divergence, Radiance, and Path Lengths. 311
6.4 Atmospheric Applications of the Monte Carlo Method. 315
6.4.1 Irradiances in Plane-Parallel Media. 316
6.4.2 Photon Path Lengths. 320
6.4.3 Three-dimensional Clouds. 323
6.4.4 Solar and Terrestrial Irradiances, Flux Divergences, and Heating Rate Profiles....
References and Suggestions for Further Reading. 335
Problems. 338
7 Polarization: The Hidden Variable 345
7.1 The Nature of Polarized Light. 345
7.1.1 Vibration Ellipse and Ellipsometric Parameters. 346
7.1.2 Orthogonally Polarized Waves do not Interfere. 348
7.1.3 Stokes Parameters and the Ellipsometric Parameters. 349
7.1.4 Unpolarized and Partially Polarized Light. 354
7.1.5 Degree of Polarization. 357
7.1.6 Linear Retarders and Birefringence. 359
7.2 Polarization upon Specular Reflection. 362
7.2.1 Scattering Interpretation of Specular Reflection and the Brewster Angle. 366
7.2.2 Transformations of Stokes Parameters: The Mueller Matrix. 367
7.3 Polarization by Dipolar Scattering: Skylight. 370
7.3.1 Polarization of Skylight. 374
7.4 Particles as Polarizers and Retarders. 378
References and Suggestions for Further Reading. 384
Problems. 387
8 Meteorological Optics: The Reward 397
8.1 Color and Brightness of the Molecular Atmosphere. 397
8.1.1 Variation of Sky Color and Brightness. 399
8.1.2 Sunrise and Sunset. 408
8.1.3 Ozone and the Twilight Sky. 409
8.2 Atmospheric Visual Range. 415
8.3 Atmospheric Refraction. 418
8.3.1 Terrestrial Mirages. 418
8.3.2 Extraterrestrial Mirages. 423
8.3.3 The Green Flash. 425
8.4 Scattering by Single Water Droplets. 427
8.4.1 Coronas and Iridescent Clouds. 427
8.4.2 Rainbows. 429
8.4.3 The Glory. 436
8.5 Scattering by Single Ice Crystals. 437
8.5.1 Sun Dogs and Halos. 437
8.6 Clouds as Givers and Takers of Light. 440
8.6.1 Green Thunderstorms. 441
References and Suggestions for Further Reading. 446
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Index
A
Absorbance 54-55
Absorptance, defined 54
Absorption see also Cross section, absorption
- by atmospheric gases 93
- classical versus quantum-mechanical 76-78
- by harmonic oscillator 72
- by particles 110-114
Absorption coefficient
- bulk 112, 159
- defined 51
- Einstein 86, 118
- of ice and liquid water, near-infrared 285
- and imaginary part of refractive index 159
- molecular 89
- of suspension of particles 111
Absorption cross section see Cross section
Absorption length
- defined 53
- of ice 53, 261, 280
- of liquid water 53, 261, 280
Absorption line see also Line shape and Line strength
- defined 72
Absorptivity
- average 20
- defined 14
- line 108
- of a pile of plates 247
Acoustic waves 142
Aerial perspective 403
Aerosol, defined 164
Airlight see also Skylight
- defined 400
- luminance of 416
- radiance of 401
Albedo 33
- Bond 237
- of Earth 33, 232
- for single scattering see Single-scattering albedo
Alexander's dark band 434
Amplitude modulation 161
Anticorona see Glory
Antisolar point 377, 431
Arago point 377
Asymmetry parameter
- general expression for 298
- in Henyey-Greenstein function 305
- of a plate 248
- in two-stream theory 256
- of a water droplet 269
Atmospheric optical phenomena see Meteorological optics
Atmospheric optics see Meteorological optics
Attenuation
- exponential 52
- nonexponential 63-65, 116
- in nonuniform medium 56
Attenuation coefficient 265
Average, concept of 17-20
B
Babinet point 377
Backscattering
- coherent 342
- radar see Cross section
Beer's law 53, 116, 122, see also Bouguer's law
Birefringence, linear 359
- of hailstones 362, 385
- induced 359
- natural 359
- and sun dogs 362
Blackbody
- defined 13
- minimum temperature to be visible 38
Blackbody radiation 12-14
- history of 39
- without a blackbody 15-17
Blue moon and sun 174, 179
Boltzmann factor 80
Bond albedo see Albedo
Bouguer's law 53, 115
Brewster angle
- defined 364
- pseudo-Brewster angle 365
- scattering interpretation of 366-367
Brewster point 377
Brewster's law 365, 386
Brightness
- defined 204, 206
- dependence on angular size 194
- of sky 399-406, 415
Brightness temperature
- of clear sky 26-27
- of clouds 26-27
- defined 21
- of sky with zenith angle 58
- of water, directional dependence 31
C
Candela 200
Carbon dioxide
- absorption spectrum of 93
- normal modes of 83, 101
Carbon monoxide
- absorption spectrum of 93, 99
- rotational energy levels of 95
- vibrational energy levels of 95
Caustic 195, 430
Chappuis bands 100, 411
Chromaticity coordinates 218
Chromaticity diagram 218, 219
CIE 217, see also Colorimetry and Chromaticity diagram
Cloud bow 435
Clouds
- brightness variation of 440-441
- color of 259-261, 268-270, 442-444
- composition of, determined remotely 116
- emission by 26-29
- irradiance profiles in 319
- particle volume fraction of 268
Coherence 136, 175
Coherence length
- lateral 137-139
- of sunlight 139
Collisional broadening 85, see also Line shape
Color contrast, simultaneous 218
Color names 214, 216, 228
Color temperature
- of blackbody 222
- correlated 222
- of daylight 21
- defined 21
- of incandescent lamp 21
- of skylight 21
Colorimetry 216-224
- achromatic point 219
- chromaticity coordinates 218
- chromaticity diagram (CIE 1931) 219
- chromaticity diagram (CIE 1976) 223-224
- complementary colors 219
- defined 216
- nonspectral colors 219
- purity 220
- purple line 219
- spectral colors 219
- spectrum locus 219
- tristimulus values 216-217
Colors, complementary see Colorimetry
Combinations, of fundamental frequencies 82, 100
Complex variables 66-70
Continuum absorption 90, 104, 118
Contrast 196
- between object and horizon sky 416
- because of temperature differences 25
- threshold 416
Coordinate axes, transformation of 308-309
Corona 260, 427-429
- elliptical 429, 450
- in the eye 449
- from nonspherical particles 429, 449
- theory of 427-429
Critical angle 210, 390
- and sun dogs 439
Critical opalescence 153
Cross section
- absorption, of atmospheric molecules 93
- absorption, of a molecule 61
- absorption, of a particle 110
- absorption, of a water droplet over six decades 170
- absorption, of a water molecule 65
- and emissivity 65
- extinction, defined 155
- extinction, of a large particle 169
- extinction, of a sphere 166
- and molecular absorption coefficient 62, 89
- radar backscattering 168
- scattering, differential 155
- scattering, of a molecule 129
- scattering, of a molecule, and polarizability 418
- scattering, of a sphere 166
- scattering, of a water droplet over six decades 170
- scattering, total 155
- volumetric absorption, defined 111
- volumetric absorption, of a particle, approximate 121
- volumetric absorption, of a slab 112
- volumetric absorption, of a water droplet 114
- volumetric scattering, defined 156
- volumetric scattering, of a water droplet 173
- wavelength dependence of 173
Crowding 272
D
Daylight 21, 405, 447
Degree of polarization see Polarization
Detailed balance, principle of 14, 40
Dichroism
- circular 351
- linear 350
Diffraction
- many meanings of 126
- two-slit pattern 137-138
Diffuse radiation 261-263
Diffusion coefficient 297-298
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