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Contents
PrefaceVII
Preface to 1 st EditionIX
1 Introduction 1
1.1 Nanometers, Micrometers, Millimeters 3
1.2 Moore's Law 7
1.3 Esaki's Quantum Tunneling Diode 8
1.4 Quantum Dots of Many Colors 9
1.5 GMR 100 Gb Hard Drive "Read" Heads 11
1.6 Accelerometers in your Car 13
1.7 Nanopore Filters 14
1.8 Nanoscale Elements in Traditional Technologies 14
2 Systematics of Making Things Smaller, Pre-quantum 17
2.1 Mechanical Frequencies Increase in Small Systems 17
2.2 Scaling Relations Illustrated by a Simple Harmonic Oscillator 20
2.3 Scaling Relations Illustrated by Simple Circuit Elements 21
2.4 Thermal Time Constants and Temperature Differences Decrease 22
2.5 Viscous Forces Become Dominant for Small Particles in Fluid Media 22
2.6 Frictional Forces can Disappear in Symmetric Molecular Scale Systems 24
3 What are Limits to Smallness?27
3.1 Particle (Quantum) Nature of Matter Photons, Electrons, Atoms, Molecules 27
3.2 Biological Examples of Nanomotors and Nanodevices 28
3.2.1 Linear Spring Motors 29
3.2.2 Linear Engines on Tracks 30
3.2.3 Rotary Motors 33
3.2.4 Ion Channels, the Nanotransistors of Biology 36
3.3 How Small can you Make it?38
3.3.1 What are the Methods for Making Small Objects?38
3.3.2 How Can you See What you Want to Make?39
3.3.3 How Can you Connect it to the Outside World?41
3.3.4 If you Can't See it or Connect to it, Can you Make it Self-assemble and Work on...
3.3.5 Approaches to Assembly of Small Three-dimensional Objects 41
3.3.6 Use of DNA Strands in Guiding Self-assembly of Nanometer Size Structures 45
4 Quantum Nature of the Nanoworld 49
4.1 Bohr's Model of the Nuclear Atom 49
4.1.1 Quantization of Angular Momentum 50
4.1.2 Extensions of Bohr's Model 53
4.2 Particle-wave Nature of Light and Matter, DeBroglie Formulas λ = h/p, E = hv...
4.3 Wavefunction Ψ for Electron, Probability Density Ψ*Ψ, Traveling an...
4.4 Maxwell's Equations; E and B as Wavefunctions for Photons, Optical Fiber Modes 57
4.5 The Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle 58
4.6 Schrodinger Equation, Quantum States and Energies, Barrier Tunneling 59
4.6.1 Schrodinger Equations in one Dimension 60
4.6.2 The Trapped Particle in one Dimension 61
4.6.3 Reflection and Tunneling at a Potential Step 63
4.6.4 Penetration of a Barrier, Escape Time from a Well, Resonant Tunneling Diode 65
4.6.5 Trapped Particles in Two and Three Dimensions: Quantum Dot 66
4.6.62 D Bands and Quantum Wires 69
4.6.7 The Simple Harmonic Oscillator 70
4.6.8 Schrodinger Equation in Spherical Polar Coordinates 72
4.7 The Hydrogen Atom, One-electron Atoms, Excitons 72
4.7.1 Magnetic Moments 76
4.7.2 Magnetization and Magnetic Susceptibility 77
4.7.3 Positronium and Excitons 78
4.8 Fermions, Bosons and Occupation Rules 79
5 Quantum Consequences for the Macroworld 81
5.1 Chemical Table of the Elements 81
5.2 Nano-symmetry, Di-atoms, and Ferromagnets 82
5.2.1 Indistinguishable Particles, and their Exchange 82
5.2.2 The Hydrogen Molecule, Di-hydrogen: the Covalent Bond 84
5.3 More Purely Nanophysical Forces: van der Waals, Casimir, and Hydrogen Bonding 86
5.3.1 The Polar and van der Waals Fluctuation Forces 87
5.3.2 The Casimir Force 90
5.3.3 The Hydrogen Bond 94
5.4 Metals as Boxes of Free Electrons: Fermi Level, DOS, Dimensionality 95
5.4.1 Electronic Conduction, Resistivity, Mean Free Path, Hall Effect, Magnetoresista...
5.5 Periodic Structures (e.g. Si, GaAs, InSb, Cu): Kronig-Penney Model for Electron B...
5.6 Electron Bands and Conduction in Semiconductors and Insulators; Localization vs. ...
5.7 Hydrogenic Donors and Acceptors 109
5.7.1 Carrier Concentrations in Semiconductors, Metallic Doping 110
5.7.2 PN Junction, Electrical Diode I(V) Characteristic, Injection Laser 114
5.8 More about Ferromagnetism, the Nanophysical Basis of Disk Memory 119
5.9 Surfaces are Different; Schottky Barrier Thickness W = [2εεoVB/eND]1/21...
5.10 Ferroelectrics, Piezoelectrics and Pyroelectrics: Recent Applications to Advanci...
6 Self-assembled Nanostructures in Nature and Industry 133
6.1 Carbon Atom 126 C 1 s 2 2 p 4 (0.07 nm)134
6.2 Methane CH 4, Ethane C 2 H 6, and Octane C 8 H 18135
6.3 Ethylene C 2 H 4, Benzene C 6 H 6, and Acetylene C 2 H 2136
6.4 C 60 Buckyball (~0.5 nm)136
6.5 C∞ Nanotube (~0.5 nm)137
6.5.1 Si Nanowire (~5 nm)139
6.6 InAs Quantum Dot (~5 nm)140
6.7 AgBr Nanocrystal (0.1-2 μm)142
6.8 Fe 3 O 4 Magnetite and Fe 3 S 4 Greigite Nanopartides in Magnetotactic Bacteria 1...
6.9 Self-assembled Monolayers on Au and Other Smooth Surfaces 144
7 Physics-based Experimental Approaches to Nanofabrication and Nanotechnology 147
7.1 Silicon Technology: the INTEL-IBM Approach to Nanotechnology 148
7.1.1 Patterning, Masks, and Photolithography 148
7.1.2 Etching Silicon 149
7.1.3 Defining Highly Conducting Electrode Regions 150
7.1.4 Methods of Deposition of Metal and Insulating Films 150
7.2 Lateral Resolution (Linewidths) Limited by Wavelength of Light, now 65 nm 152
7.2.1 Optical and X-ray Lithography 152
7.2.2 Electron-beam Lithography 153
7.3 Sacrificial Layers, Suspended Bridges, Single-electron Transistors 153
7.4 What is the Future of Silicon Computer Technology?155
7.5 Heat Dissipation and the RSFQ Technology 156
7.6 Scanning Probe (Machine) Methods: One Atom at a Time 160
7.7 Scanning Tunneling Microscope (STM) as Prototype Molecular Assembler 162
7.7.1 Moving Au Atoms, Making Surface Molecules 162
7.7.2 Assembling Organic Molecules with an STM 165
7.8 Atomic Force Microscope (AFM) Arrays 166
7.8.1 Cantilever Arrays by Photolithography 166
7.8.2 Nanofabrication with an AFM 167
7.8.3 Imaging a Single Electron Spin by a Magnetic-resonance AFM 168
7.9 Fundamental Questions: Rates, Accuracy and More 170
8 Quantum Technologies Based on Magnetism, Electron and Nuclear Spin, and Superconduc...
8.1 The Stern-Gerlach Experiment: Observation of Spin ½ Angular Momentum of the Elect...
8.2 Two Nuclear Spin Effects: MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging) and the "21.1 cm Line"...
8.3 Electron Spin ½ as a Qubit for a Quantum Computer Quantum Superposition, Coherenc...
8.4 Hard and Soft Ferromagnets 183
8.5 The Origins of GMR (Giant Magnetoresistance): Spin-dependent Scattering of Electr...
8.6 The GMR Spin Valve, a Nanophysical Magnetoresistance Sensor 186
8.7 The Tunnel Valve, a Better (TMR) Nanophysical Magnetic Field Sensor 188
8.8 Magnetic Random Access Memory (MRAM)190
8.8.1 Magnetic Tunnel Junction MRAM Arrays 190
8.8.2 Hybrid Ferromagnet-Semiconductor Nonvolatile Hall Effect Gate Devices 191
8.9 Spin Injection: the Johnson-Silsbee Effect 192
8.9.1 Apparent Spin Injection from a Ferromagnet into a Carbon Nanotube 195
8.10 Magnetic Logic Devices: a Majority Universal Logic Gate 196
8.11 Superconductors and the Superconducting (Magnetic) Flux Quantum 198
8.12 Josephson Effect and the Superconducting Quantum Interference Detector (SQUID)20...
8.13 Superconducting (RSFQ) Logic/Memory Computer Elements 203
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Index
A
accelerometers 6, 13, 17, 153
acceptor impurity 9, 109
acetylene 136, 270
acids 149
acrosomal process 30
actin filaments 28, 31
- fluorescently labeled 33
adiabatic compression of gas bubble, effect on temperature 270
adjacent nodes 59
ADP 30
AFM Arrays 166
AFM cantilever 22
AFM tip 7, 166
AgBr crystals 15
- conventional photography 142
air-bag, acceleration sensor for 13
aligned filaments 29
alkali etch 149
allowed energy bands 6, 98, 100
allowed frequencies 19
allowed values 62
alteration, of viruses 253
amino acids, unconventional 256
Ampere's law 54
angular momentum 73, 74
- allowed orientations 74
- orbital 177
- spin 177
- total 177
angular momentum wave functions 74
angular rotation sensors 6
annealing 152
anomalous current 107
anthracene 136
anti-node 265
antiparallel spins 85
antisymmetric exchange 82-84
anti-symmetry under exchange 267
applications, completely different 4
array, of C 60 molecules 145
arrays of nanowires 14
artemisinin, anti-malaria drug, as produced in synthetic biology 256
artificial atom 3, 9
artificial intelligence 254
artificial virus 254
assembler breakthrough 1
assembling a ring 40
assembling organic molecules 165
assembly of dna-templated field effect
- transistor fet
- schematic showing electrode attachment 46
- single wall nanotube (swnt) for field effect transistor fet 46
assembly processes, nature 251
20-atom nanowire 162
Atomic Force Microscope (AFM) 20, 160
atomic scale 2
ATP 30, 35
ATP Synthase (FOF 1) 33
attractive interactions 84
Avogadro's number 3, 27, 170
B
bacteria 2, 14, 36, 143, 267, 271
- magnetotactic 122, 273
- typical 273
ballistic electron motion, vs diffusive motion 207
band curvature 109
band structures
- for GaAs 106
- for Si 106
band theory 100
bandgap 267, 270
- effective masses 10
- insulator 5
- of the nanotube 139
- semiconductor 5
bandgap energy 68, 87
bandgap of semiconductor 111, 112
bands of energy 6, 98, 100
barrier tunneling 49, 59
basic microscopic properties, condensed matter 5
beams, one electron atoms 177
benign areas
- of nanophysics 258
- of nanotechnology 258
benzene 136
bi-crystal defect 143
big bang 134
Big Blue, not human 255
biological cellular engines 31
biological rotary motors 25
biological sensors
- cones 2
- rods 2
biology 1, 28
- molecular 2
- synthetic 255, 256
bio-molecular rotary motor 35
biotechnology 147, 252, 257, 258
- bacteria 252
- viruses 252
bits 11
black body spectrum 27
blue shift 10, 267
Bohr magneton 76, 120
Bohr radius 109
- corrected 109
- scaled 109
Bohr's semi-classical model 49, 109
Boltzmann thermal occupation factor 77
Boltzmann's constant 4, 270
bonding interaction 85
bonds 75
Bose-Einstein distribution 79
bosons 79, 83
boundaries, allowed bands 100
boundary conditions 18, 61
boxes of free electrons 95
Bragg reflection 102, 103, 270
Bragg scattering, electron waves 102
brass 18
Brillouin function 120
Brownian motion 23, 267
Bubble, surface tension and pressure
- difference 270
bubbles in dense liquids
- collapse of bubble causes light emission "sonoluminescence" 129
- generation by ultrasound from piezoelectric transducers 129
bubonic plague 253
Buckyball 136
building-up principle 81
bulk modulus 5
bulk speed of sound vs 5
buried layer 152
buried oxide layer (BOX) 152, 155, 156
C
60 C (Buckminsterfullerene) 15
C 60 molecule 267, 271
cantilever 20, 167
cantilever arrays 166
carbon arc discharge 137-138
carbon black 14
carbon bonds 134
carbon nanotube 69, 137-138, 270
- chemicapacitor 215
- conductive network produced by chemical vapor deposition 215
- crossbar array 217
- electric field, inherently large 214
- energy for deflection 217
- latching tunnel junction switch 217
- random access memory element 214
- sensor device for polar molecules 214
- voltage dependent binding of polar molecule 215
carbon nanotube crossbar array
- electrostatic energy 218, 219
- fabrication 219
- junction capacitance 218
- spring constant for deflection 218
- switching configuration 219
- tunnel junction resistance 218
carbon-carbon bond, delocalized 136
Carnot cycle 31
Casimir force 89 ff
Ca++ gated potassium channel 36
catalyst 138, 250
cavitation in liquid 124
- relation to pitting of metal surface 124
CdS nanowire
- cleavage to provide optical cavity 118
- injection laser 118
- light emission spectrum 118
- synthesis method 118
CdSe 68
CdTe 68
cells 2
cellular telephone 151
cellular telephone transmitting stations 159
centripetal acceleration 21
change in capacitance 13
change in conformation 31
changes in physical behavior 6
charge oscillation, in double well 223
charge qubit
- analogy to spin based qubit 226
- initialization of charge in molecule-ion 225, 226
- readout of charge location 226
- shallow donor electron state 225, 226
- silicon based 225, 226
charged afm (atomic force microscope) tip, as basis of electron mode imaging 209
chemical bonds as tunnel barriers 241
chemical synthesis, of C 60 249
chemical table, elements 81
chemical vapor deposition 137-138, 149, 151
chip dissipation 265
cip spin valve magnetic sensor 187
circular motion 21
circular orbit 50
circular ripples 39
classical Newtonian physics 4
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