DeutschesFachbuch.de : Transparent Conductive Zinc Oxide Basics and Applications in Thin Film Solar Cells

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Contents
1 ZnO and Its Applications
K.Ellmer and A. Klein 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Zinc Oxide 2
1.3 Properties of ZnO 4
1.4 Material Preparation 9
1.4.1 Growth of ZnO Single Crystals 9
1.4.2 Deposition of ZnO Thin Films 9
1.4.3 Preparation of ZnO Nanostructures 11
1.5 Electronic Structure of ZnO 12
1.6 Intrinsic Defects in ZnO 14
1.6.1 Thermodynamic Properties 14
1.6.2 Self-Diffusion in ZnO 19
1.7 Applications of ZnO 21
1.7.1 Transparent Electrodes 24
1.7.2 Varistors 25
1.7.3 Piezoelectric Devices 26
1.7.4 Phosphors 26
1.7.5 Transparent Oxide Thin Film Transistors 26
1.7.6 Spintronics 27
References 27
2 Electrical Properties
K.Ellmer 35
2.1 Electrical Properties of ZnO Single Crystals 36
2.1.1 Dopants in ZnO Single Crystals 38
2.1.2 Electrical Transport in ZnO Single Crystals 41
2.2 Electrical Transport in Polycrystalline ZnO 53
2.2.1 ZnO Varistors 53
2.2.2 Thin ZnO Films 56
2.2.3 Transport Processes in Polycrystalline Films 57
2.2.4 Experimental Mobility Data of Polycrystalline ZnO 61
2.2.5 Outlook: Higher Electron Mobilities in Zinc Oxide 67
2.2.6 Transparent Field Effect Transistors with ZnO 70
2.5 Search for p-Type Conductivity in ZnO 71
References 72
3 Optical Properties of ZnO and Related Compounds
C.Bundesmann, R. Schmidt-Grund, and M. Schubert 79
3.1 Introduction 79
3.2 Basic Concepts and Properties 81
3.2.1 Structural Properties 81
3.2.2 Vibrational Properties 83
3.2.3 Infrared Model Dielectric Function: Phonons and Plasmons 85
3.2.4 Visible-to-Vacuum-Ultraviolet Model Dielectric Function: Band-to-Band Transitio...
3.2.5 Spectroscopic Ellipsometry 88
3.3 Dielectric Constants and Dielectric Functions 90
3.4 Phonons 92
3.4.1 Undoped ZnO 92
3.4.2 Doped ZnO 98
3.4.3 MgxZn 1-xO 99
3.4.4 Phonon Mode Broadening Parameters 100
3.5 Plasmons 102
3.6 Below-Band-Gap Index of Refraction 105
3.6.1 ZnO 105
3.6.2 MgxZn 1-xO 106
3.7 Band-to-Band Transitions and Excitonic Properties 108
3.7.1 ZnO 108
3.7.2 MgxZn 1-xO 116
References 118
4 Surfaces and Interfaces of Sputter-Deposited ZnO Films
A.Klein and F. Säuberlich 125
4.1 Introduction 126
4.1.1 Semiconductor Interfaces 126
4.1.2 ZnO in Thin-Film Solar Cells 127
4.1.3 Photoelectron Spectroscopy (PES)128
4.2 Surface Properties of ZnO 131
4.2.1 Crystallographic Structure of ZnO Surfaces 131
4.2.2 Chemical Surface Composition of Sputtered ZnO Films 133
4.2.3 Electronic Structure of ZnO Surfaces 139
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Index
(Zn, Cd)0, 13
(Zn, Mg)0, 13
Aabsorption edge, fundamental, 111
- MgZnO, 117, 118
- temperature, 112-114, 116
air mass (AM), 250
Aluminium concentration, 135
angular distribution function, 287
anisotropy of conductivity, 48
atomic layer deposition, 293
Bband alignment
- amorphous interface, 164
- II-VI semiconductors, 13
- ZnO/(Zn, Mg)0, 13, 14
band gap, 274-276
- shrinkage at high doping level, 276
band gap engineering, 13
band gap, fundamental, 109, 111
- MgZnO, 117, 118
- temperature, 112-114, 116
band-to-band transitions, 108, 109
Bose-Einstein model, 96, 112
- parameters, 97, 113
bowing, 117
brass, 21
Burstein-Moss effect, 274-276
Ccathodoluminescence, 26
Cauchy formula, 105
- parameters, 107, 108
CdO, 5
CIGS solar cells
CVD ZnO buffer layers, 289
collision cascade, 192
combinatorial PLD, 347
conduction band offset, 126
conductivity of ZnO single crystals, 36
critical points, 108
- parameters, 109
- model dielectric function, 87
crystal structure, 81
- rocksalt, 83
- wurtzite, 82
crystal-field splitting, 110, 112
crystallographic structure, 4
Cu(In, Ga)Se 2
Cu depletion, 168
- influence of Na, 169
- Se cap layer, 164
- solar cell, 128
cubic ZnO, 4
CVD
- atmospheric pressure (APCVD), 235, 238, 241
- deposition temperature, 261
- grain size, 245, 247
- growth kinetics, 238, 239
- low pressure (LPCVD), 239
- precursors, 236
Ddamp-heat test, 368
Debye-temperature, 112-114
defect annealing, 21
defects
- antisites, 14
- concentration, 15
- concentration in ZnO, 19
- formation enthalpy, 15
- formation enthalpy for ZnO, 16
- Frenkel, 14, 17
- in ZnO, 14-23
- oxygen dumbbell interstitial, 17, 20, 21
- oxygen interstitial, 14
- oxygen split interstitial, 17
- oxygen vacancy, 14, 17, 19, 35, 38
- oxygenvacancies, 38, 39
- Schott ky, 14
- self compensation, 18
- transition energies, 18
- zinc interstitial, 14, 19, 35, 38, 39
- zinc vacancy, 14, 17, 18
demonstrator devices, 336
density, 6 dielectric constants, 85, 91, 105
- MgZnO, 91
- ZnO, 91
dielectric function, 89-90
- ZnO temperature, 113
- ZnO VIS-VUV, 108, 113
diffusion
- in ZnO, 19-23
- migration enthalpy, 19, 21
- of oxygen in ZnO, 20-22
- of zinc in ZnO, 21, 23
doping
- of CVD ZnO films, 266
doping efficiency, 18, 203, 249, 257, 272, 273
doping limits, 18
- for ZnO and In 2 O 3 , 19
doping uniformity
- of CVD ZnO films, 257
droplets, 304
Eeffective electron mass, 103
electroluminescence, 26
electron mobility
- of AP-CVD ZnO films, 257
- of CVD ZnO films, 258
electron-phonon interaction, 112
electronic structure, 12
ellipsometry, 81, 88
- data analysis, 89
- generalized, 89
- standard, 88
energy band diagram, 126
epitaxial ZnO thin films, 313
- n-type doped, 322
- pn-junctions, 344
- p-type doped, 322, 344
- AFM, 319
- applications, 336
- Bragg reflectors, 340
- carrier concentration, 323
- cathodoluminescence, 327, 338
- chemical composition, 331
- composition transfer, 334
- deep level transient spectroscopy, 325
- demonstrator devices, 336
- diffusion barrier layer, 322
- doping, 331
electrical properties, 322
excitons, 329
- Hall mobility, 323
- highlights, 344
- magnetic domain formation, 337
- phonons, 329
- photoluminescence, 327
- quantum well structures, 340
- resistivity, 323
- results of the Leipzig group, 335
- RHEED, 314
- Schottky contact, 327, 341
- scintillators, 338
- semiinsulating, 323
- structure, 314
- surface morphology, 319
- TEM, 314
- temperature-dependent Hall effect, 325
- trace element concentrations, 334
- XRD, 314
etching behavior
- acidic solution, 370, 380, 382, 384, 386
- alkaline solution, 380, 382, 386
- discussion, 389
- influence of aluminum doping, 385
- influence of deposition pressure, 384
- influence of glass substrate, 392
- influence of hidden parameters, 387
- influence of substrate temperature, 384
- influence of working point, 386
- ion beam treatment, 387
- modified Thornton model, 384
- plasma etching, 388
- polycrystalline films, 382
- single crystal, 380
etching of sputtered ZnO layers, 213
excimer laser, 309
excitons, 108, 109, 111, 113
FFermi level pinning, 127
- at CdS/ZnO interface, 160, 164
- at In 2 S 3 /ZnO interface, 177
field effect transistor, 26 figure of merit, 287 formation enthalpy, 6, 166 free-char...
- ablation, 306
- ablation threshold, 308
- absorption, 306
- condensation, 308
film growth, 308
- nucleation, 308
- plasma expansion, 307
GGa 2 O 3 , 166
Grüneisen parameters, 97
grain boundaries, 59
grain boundary scattering, 257, 259, 278
grain size
- of CVD films, 247
- of LPCVD films, 245, 247
growth of ZnO single crystals, 9
HHall coefficient, 44, 46
Hall effect, 37
hidden effects, 310
high pressure phase, 5
high-Tc superconductor, 303
high-pressure PLD, 348
hydrogen, 19
IIn 2 O 3 , 5, 6, 18, 166
index of refraction, 105
- birefringence, 106
- MgZnO, 106, 108
- temperature, 107
- ZnO, 106, 108
- MgZnO, 107
- temperature, 106
- ZnO, 107
interface dipole
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