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Table of contents
Preface to the third edition.V
0 Introduction: What is linguistics?VI
1 The core area of linguistics: grammar. 1
1.1 Grammar in general. 1
1.1.1 What kind of thing is grammar?1
1.1.1.1 Grammar as knowledge. 1
1.1.1.2 Grammar as a societal phenomenon. 3
1.1.1.3 Discourse as a window to grammar. 3
1.1.1.4 Written grammars. 6
1.1.1.5 Summary. 7
1.1.2 Subdivisions of grammar and the notion of word. 9
1.1.3 General concepts of grammar. 14
1.1.3.1 Word classes. 14
1.1.3.2 Grammatical categories of the noun. 18
1.1.3.3 Comparison of adjectives. 20
1.1.3.4 Verbal categories. 21
1.2 Syntax. 29
1.2.1 Traditional structural categories in the sentence. 29
1.2.1.1 The notion of valency. 29
1.2.1.2 Syntactic functions: subject and object, adverbial and complement. 31
1.2.1.3 Compound and complex sentences. 35
1.2.2 Generative Grammar: the description of constituent structure. 38
1.2.2.1 Requirements on a syntactic description. 38
1.2.2.2 The major constituents of an English sentence. Heuristic tests. 40
1.2.2.3 Types of phrases in the English sentence. 45
1.2.2.4 Structure within constituents: Head and modifier. 47
1.2.2.5 Resolving syntactic ambiguity. 48
1.2.2.6 Thematic roles. 49
1.2.2.7 Formal vs. functional approaches in syntax. 51
1.2.3 Construction Grammar. 52
1.2.3.1 Historical background. 52
1.2.3.2 The notion of construction. 53
1.2.3.3 A "classical" example: the let alone construction. 61
1.2.3.4 Generative vs. Construction Grammar. 63
1.3 Morphology. 64
1.3.1 Why morphology?64
1.3.2 Morphemes. 65
1.3.3 Allomorphs and morphological processes. 67
1.3.4 Inflection vs. derivation. 69
1.3.5 Further strategies of word-formation. 72
1.3.6 Productivity in morphology. 78
1.3.7 Summary. 79
1.4 Language typology. 80
2 Phonetics and Phonology. 86
2.0 A brief note on phonetic transcription. 86
2.1 Phonetics. 86
2.1.1 Articulatory phonetics. 86
2.1.1.1 Vowels: Types of vowels. Parameters of vowel description. 88
2.1.1.2 Consonants. 97
2.1.1.3 Approximants / Glides / Semi-vowels. 101
2.1.2 Acoustic phonetics. 102
2.1.3 Auditory phonetics. 104
2.2 Segmental phonology. 105
2.2.1 Phonetics vs. phonology. The phoneme. 105
2.2.2 Phonemic and phonetic transcription. 107
2.2.3 Phoneme vs. allophone. 109
2.2.4 Neutralisation. 116
2.2.5 Distinctive features. 117
2.2.6 Morphophonology. 117
2.3 Suprasegmental phonology. 119
2.3.1 Phonotactics. 119
2.3.2 Syllables. 119
2.3.3 Word stress. 121
2.3.4 Intonation. 123
2.4 The phonetics and phonology of connected speech. 127
2.4.1 Weak forms. 128
2.4.2 Assimilation. 130
2.4.3 Linking /r/ and intrusive /r/.131
2.5 Writing. 132
3 Language change in progress. 135
3.1 What kinds of language change are there?135
3.2 Grammaticalisation. 136
3.3 Lexical change. 138
3.4 Sociolinguistic change. 142
3.5 Why do languages change?143
4 Semantics. 145
4.0 What is semantics?145
4.1 General key concepts of semantics. 146
4.1.1 Reference and sense and related dichotomies. 146
4.1.2 Ambiguity, homonymy and polysemy; metonymy and metaphor; vagueness. 148
4.1.2.1 Two kinds of ambiguity: homonymy and polysemy. 148
4.1.2.2 Metonymy and metaphor. 151
4.1.2.3 Vagueness. 152
4.2 Structural semantics: semantic fields, sense relations and componential analysis....
4.2.1 Semantic fields. 153
4.2.2 Sense relations. 155
4.2.2.1 Synonymy. 155
4.2.2.2 Hyponymy. 156
4.2.2.3 Partitive relations. 157
4.2.2.4 Antonymy. 157
4.2.3 Componential analysis: the semantic feature approach. 158
4.3 Semantic primitives. 160
4.4 Cognitive semantics. 161
4.4.1 Central tenets of cognitive semantics. 161
4.4.2 Prototypes. 163
4.4.3 Frames. 165
4.5 Formal semantics. 168
4.5.1 Truth values and truth conditions. 168
4.5.2 Logical connectives. 169
4.5.3 Logical relations between propositions. 173
4.5.3.1 Entailment. 173
4.5.3.2 Paraphrase. 174
4.5.3.3 Presupposition. 175
4.5.4 Logical properties of propositions. 178
4.5.4.1 Contradiction. 178
4.5.4.2 Tautology. 178
4.5.4.3 Anomaly. 178
4.5.5 Predicate logic. 179
4.5.5.1 Simple statements. 179
4.5.5.2 Quantification. 180
4.5.5.3 Logical aspects of lexical decomposition. 184
4.5.6 Other issues in formal semantics. 186
5 Pragmatics: the context of language use. 187
5.1 Illocution. 189
5.2 Conversational maxims. 193
5.3 Relevance theory. 196
5.4 The notion of context. 197
6 Textlinguistics. Conversation analysis. Discourse analysis. 200
6.1 Textlinguistic approaches to text analysis. 200
6.1.1 Grammar beyond the sentence: cohesion phenomena. 201
6.1.2 Cohesion as text constitution. 203
6.1.3 Thematic progression. 205
6.1.4 Coherence relations. 207
6.2 The analysis of conversation. 210
6.3 Discourse in the technical age. 211
6.3.1 The oral - written dichotomy. 211
6.3.2 Media discourse. 216
7 Sociolinguistics. 217
7.0 The realm of sociolinguistics. 217
7.1 Dialect, sociolect, and the standard. 218
7.1.1 Dialect vs. language and accent. 218
7.1.2 Sociolect. 223
7.1.3 The standard. 225
7.2 Languages in contact. 227
7.2.1 Minority vs. majority. 227
7.2.2 Bi- and multilingualism. 228
7.2.3 Language policy. 231
7.3 English as a world language. 233
7.4 Pidgins and creoles. 237
7.4.1 Pidgins. 238
7.4.2 Creoles. 239
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11 Index cum glossary
This index contains
-all the relevant terminology that is used in this book. It will list only those occu...
-It also contains German terminology with cross-references to the English term. Where...
-Furthermore, this index contains names of linguists that are well known and discusse...
-And it contains names of languages, dialects and countries that are mentioned. As th...
A
abbreviation 77
Abkürzung see abbreviation
Ableitung see derivation
Absolute Konstruktion see absolute construction
Abstandssprache 221
accent 222
accusative 33
acoustic phonetics 86
acrolect 246
acronym 77
active voice 25
actor 50, 56
adjacency pair 210
adjective 14
Adjektiv see adjective
adjunct 34
adjunct / complement 47
Adjunkt see adjunct
adverb 16
adverbial 34, 42, 45, 48
adverbial clause 36
Adverbialsatz see adverbial clause
affix 66, 80
affricate 100
Affrikate see affricate
Agens see agent
agent 50, 51
agglutinating language 83, 85
agglutinierende Sprache see agglutinating language
agreement 18, 19, 31
AITCHISON 137, 146, 154, 249, 251, 253
Akkusativ see accusative
Akrolekt see acrolect
Akronym see acronym
Aktiv see active voice
akustische Phonetik see acoustic phonetics
Akzent see accent
allograph 132
allomorph 67
Alloperator see universal quantifier
allophone 107
Allquantor see universal quantifier
alphabetic writing 125, 132, 232
Alphabetschrift see alphabetic writing
ALTMANN 261
alveolar 101
Ambiguität see ambiguity
ambiguity 148, 182, 183, 184
ambiguity (syntactic) see syntactic ambiguity
AmE see American English
American English 140, 219, 226, 234, 244
American Sign Language 259
Amerikanisches Englisch see American English
amplitude 102
Amtssprache see official language
analysability 83
anaphora 201
Anlaut see onset
anomal see anomalous
anomalous 178
anteriority 24
anticipatory assimilation 130
Antithese see contrast (in text linguistics)
antizipatorische Assimilation see anticipatory assimilation
Antonymie see antonymy
antonymy 157
aphasia 260
Aphasie see aphasia
approximant 100, 101, 108
Äquivalenz see equivalence
Arabic 38, 39, 68, 112, 153, 231, 232, 233
Arabisch see Arabic see Arabic
arbitrariness 53, 263, 264
Arbitrarität see arbitrariness see arbitrariness
argument (in predicate logic) 29, 51, 179
argumentation 209
ARNOLD / HANSEN 125
Art und Weise see manner
article 16
articulatory gesture 87
articulatory phonetics 86
Artikel see article
Artikulationsart see manner of articulation
Artikulationsort see place of articulation
Artikulationsstelle see place of articulation
artikulatorische Phonetik see articulatory phonetics
ASL see American Sign Language
aspect 18, 22
Aspekt see aspect
assertive 190
assimilation 110, 130
Attribut see attribute
attribute 36, 47
attributive adjective 18, 47, 73
attributives Adjektiv see attributive adjective
auditive Phonetik see auditory phonetics
auditory phonetics 86
Aufrichtigkeitsbedingung see sincerity condition
Ausbausprache 220
Ausdrucksebene see expression plane (in HJELMSLEV)
Auslautverhärtung see final obstruent devoicing
Äußerungsbedeutung see utterance
Australia 234
Australian English 234, 235
Australien see Australia
auxiliary (verb) 14, 27, 28
Auxiliary (verb) 128
B
babbling 250
back vowel 89
background 198
base /profile 167
basilect 246
Basilekt see basilect
Baskisch see Basque
Basque 233
Baumdiagramm see tree diagram
Bedeutung see meaning
Bedeutungsdifferenzierung see differentiation of meaning
Bedeutungswandel see semantic change
Belgien see Belgium
Belgium 228, 233, 237
benefactive 50
beneficiary 50
Beobachterparadox see observer's paradox
bestimmter Artikel see definite article
Bhutan 235
BIBER 14, 24, 29, 35, 38, 212, 214, 215
biconditional 171
bikonditional see biconditional
bilabial 101
bilingualism 229
Bilingualismus see bilingualism
biolinguistics 262
Biolinguistik see biolinguistics
BLASS 197
blend 75
BNC see British National Corpus
borrowing 139
bound morpheme 66, 80
BrE see British English
Britain see United Kingdom
Britisches Englisch see British English
British English 140, 219, 226, 234
British National Corpus 4
British Sign Language 259
broad transcription 108
Brunei 235
BSL see British Sign Language
BUTZKAMM 250, 256
C
Canada 233, 234
case 18, 19
case role 49
categorial perception 105
categorisation 161
causality 209
central vowel 89
CHAFE 212
channel 213
Chinese 85, 115, 134, 228, 233
Chinesisch see Chinese
CHOMSKY 2, 5, 38, 47, 51, 251
CHOMSKY / HALLE 117, 118, 122
circumlocution 239
circumstance adverbial 45
clarification 208
CLARK / CARLSON 198
clause 35
clipping 77
clitic 67, 80, 128
close vowel 89
closed class 66, 80
coalescent assimilation 131
coarticulation 110, 131
Cockney 99
coda 120
code-switching 229
Cognitive Grammar 52
Cognitive Linguistics 52
cognitive semantics 161
coherence / cohesion 205
coherence relation 208
cohesion 201
cohesion / coherence 205
collocation 148
combining form 75, 80
comment 205
commissive 190
communicative competence 187
comparative 20
comparative linguistics 80
comparison 18
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